Using the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health to Assess Remnant Tallgrass Prairie Soils as a Target for Future Soil Restoration PDF Download
Are you looking for read ebook online? Search for your book and save it on your Kindle device, PC, phones or tablets. Download Using the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health to Assess Remnant Tallgrass Prairie Soils as a Target for Future Soil Restoration PDF full book. Access full book title Using the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health to Assess Remnant Tallgrass Prairie Soils as a Target for Future Soil Restoration by Kirsten S. M. Kurtz. Download full books in PDF and EPUB format.
Author: Kirsten S. M. Kurtz Publisher: ISBN: Category : Languages : en Pages : 0
Book Description
The planet's arable soils are rapidly degrading, primarily through mismanagement, erosion, and pollution. In contrast, some of the most fertile soils in the world lie under grasslands, such as in the Central Plains region of the United States. These soils were developed over thousands of years through wind depositions and through the deep roots of native grasses and forbs, each year depositing the organic matter and carbon of old roots under the surface. The eastern edge of US grasslands is occupied by Tallgrass Prairie, 98% of which has been converted to row crops and human use. There remains, among these soils, small remnants which have remained uncultivated or plowed, and which are likely the best remaining examples of grassland soils from before modern agriculture. To improve and preserve the agricultural soils throughout the Midwest, it is essential to thoroughly understand the soil properties of these remnant soils. Currently the most widely recognized and comprehensive suite of soil tests available for analyzing chemical, physical, and biological aspects of soil is the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health offered by the Cornell Soil Health Laboratory (CSHL). Multiple government and research groups use this testing service for the quantification of soil health properties. The goals of this study are to use Cornell University's Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health tools to: 1) evaluate the soil health of remnant tallgrass prairies in Nebraska, by quantifying a suite of relevant physical, chemical, and biological soil properties collected at multiple remnant sites; 2) compare the data from these remnant grasslands with comparable data collected in nearby agricultural fields to determine the degree and type of soil degradation which may have occurred there; and 3) use the profile characteristics of the remnant soils as a benchmark for evaluating soil health of samples derived from a region-wide data base for agricultural soils of collected from former prairies throughout the Great Plains. In the Nebraska Tallgrass Prairie region, nine research sites were identified. Five remnant sites were paired with one of four nearby agricultures sites that had a similar soil type, slope, and elevation. At each site, five subsamples were collected at 0-15 cm and at 15-30 cm soil depths. The samples were analyzed for soil texture, available water capacity, organic matter percentage, soil protein, soil respiration, active carbon, pH, total carbon, total nitrogen macro and micronutrients. The data analyses were conducted using R Studio, and the results of the remnant sites and of the agricultural sites were compared: 1) with each other, and 2) with selected samples from the CSHL Prairie State Database (PSD). There were significant differences between the remnant soils and the agricultural soils at 0-15 cm. Differences were most pronounced in the biological soil properties, with remnant soils exhibiting higher values among soil health properties that measure soil functional capacity. This pattern was also evident in the physical soil properties, although the differences were not as pronounced. In the chemical analyses, higher nutrient concentrations were found in the remnant sites than in the agricultural sites, apart from phosphorous, which was significantly higher in the agricultural sites. Similar patterns were found in the samples from 15-30 cm depth, although less pronounced. Pearson's Correlation revealed significant correlations among the biological indicators, particularly among carbon-related soil properties. In addition, a Principal Component Analysis identified associations among indicators strongly associated with microbial activity and organic matter quality. Comparison of the Nebraska samples with the Prairie Soils from the broader CSHL data base was especially insightful as soils from the remnant sites had higher soil health indicators for every property measured, except phosphorous, iron and zinc. In general, this study indicated serious degradation in the agricultural soils as compared with the remnants, with total nitrogen showing the highest difference, followed by various forms of carbon. The comparison of remnant prairie sites with agricultural sites in eastern Nebraska quantified what is apparently a breakdown of healthy soil functions in active agricultural land, as a result of long-term agricultural practices. The remnant soil health profiles presented here can therefore serve as a reference for guiding management and restoration of agricultural systems throughout the Tallgrass Prairie Region. This study also highlights the powerful approach of using the CSHL comprehensive soil analyses in combination with remnant grasslands as diagnostic tool for other types of grasslands across the Great Plains and globally.
Author: Kirsten S. M. Kurtz Publisher: ISBN: Category : Languages : en Pages : 0
Book Description
The planet's arable soils are rapidly degrading, primarily through mismanagement, erosion, and pollution. In contrast, some of the most fertile soils in the world lie under grasslands, such as in the Central Plains region of the United States. These soils were developed over thousands of years through wind depositions and through the deep roots of native grasses and forbs, each year depositing the organic matter and carbon of old roots under the surface. The eastern edge of US grasslands is occupied by Tallgrass Prairie, 98% of which has been converted to row crops and human use. There remains, among these soils, small remnants which have remained uncultivated or plowed, and which are likely the best remaining examples of grassland soils from before modern agriculture. To improve and preserve the agricultural soils throughout the Midwest, it is essential to thoroughly understand the soil properties of these remnant soils. Currently the most widely recognized and comprehensive suite of soil tests available for analyzing chemical, physical, and biological aspects of soil is the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health offered by the Cornell Soil Health Laboratory (CSHL). Multiple government and research groups use this testing service for the quantification of soil health properties. The goals of this study are to use Cornell University's Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health tools to: 1) evaluate the soil health of remnant tallgrass prairies in Nebraska, by quantifying a suite of relevant physical, chemical, and biological soil properties collected at multiple remnant sites; 2) compare the data from these remnant grasslands with comparable data collected in nearby agricultural fields to determine the degree and type of soil degradation which may have occurred there; and 3) use the profile characteristics of the remnant soils as a benchmark for evaluating soil health of samples derived from a region-wide data base for agricultural soils of collected from former prairies throughout the Great Plains. In the Nebraska Tallgrass Prairie region, nine research sites were identified. Five remnant sites were paired with one of four nearby agricultures sites that had a similar soil type, slope, and elevation. At each site, five subsamples were collected at 0-15 cm and at 15-30 cm soil depths. The samples were analyzed for soil texture, available water capacity, organic matter percentage, soil protein, soil respiration, active carbon, pH, total carbon, total nitrogen macro and micronutrients. The data analyses were conducted using R Studio, and the results of the remnant sites and of the agricultural sites were compared: 1) with each other, and 2) with selected samples from the CSHL Prairie State Database (PSD). There were significant differences between the remnant soils and the agricultural soils at 0-15 cm. Differences were most pronounced in the biological soil properties, with remnant soils exhibiting higher values among soil health properties that measure soil functional capacity. This pattern was also evident in the physical soil properties, although the differences were not as pronounced. In the chemical analyses, higher nutrient concentrations were found in the remnant sites than in the agricultural sites, apart from phosphorous, which was significantly higher in the agricultural sites. Similar patterns were found in the samples from 15-30 cm depth, although less pronounced. Pearson's Correlation revealed significant correlations among the biological indicators, particularly among carbon-related soil properties. In addition, a Principal Component Analysis identified associations among indicators strongly associated with microbial activity and organic matter quality. Comparison of the Nebraska samples with the Prairie Soils from the broader CSHL data base was especially insightful as soils from the remnant sites had higher soil health indicators for every property measured, except phosphorous, iron and zinc. In general, this study indicated serious degradation in the agricultural soils as compared with the remnants, with total nitrogen showing the highest difference, followed by various forms of carbon. The comparison of remnant prairie sites with agricultural sites in eastern Nebraska quantified what is apparently a breakdown of healthy soil functions in active agricultural land, as a result of long-term agricultural practices. The remnant soil health profiles presented here can therefore serve as a reference for guiding management and restoration of agricultural systems throughout the Tallgrass Prairie Region. This study also highlights the powerful approach of using the CSHL comprehensive soil analyses in combination with remnant grasslands as diagnostic tool for other types of grasslands across the Great Plains and globally.
Author: Norman Uphoff Publisher: CRC Press ISBN: 1000891119 Category : Technology & Engineering Languages : en Pages : 1397
Book Description
Agriculture in the 21st century will need considerable modification to remain both productive and sustainable. Greater production is needed to meet the needs of our still-growing populations and to combat hunger and poverty. Declines in soil health and the pollution of water sources are making many of our production systems less tenable. These adverse trends are exacerbated more and more by the impacts of climate change. There are, fortunately, alternative methods available for agricultural practice that can countervail these constraints. Biological Approaches to Regenerative Soil Systems brings together the work of both researchers and practitioners to map out better approaches to contemporary agriculture that draw upon both old and new knowledge. It presents the science that underlies more biologically driven strategies as well as contemporary innovative experiences in diverse parts of the world. Both accepted research and these varied experiences encourage confidence that these approaches, not relying primarily on the introduction of new varieties and on exogenous inputs, can succeed. This book updates and revises a preceding volume Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems published by CRC Press in 2006. So much has been learned and done on this subject in the past decade and a half that a second edition was warranted. For instance, the first edition was published, knowledge about plant-soil microbiomes, which are a frequent focus in this book, has mushroomed. Because sustainability is a broad term and an end-state, the editors preferred to assemble expertise regarding regenerative agriculture, which is concerned with the means for achieving sustainability. The concept of regenerative soil systems, entities that are more complex and multifaceted than "soil" alone, also incorporates a concern with having more resilient agricultural systems, ones that are better able to cope with the multiple stresses of climate change that are foreseen for the decades ahead. The book’s chapters representing a wide range of disciplines were contributed by 84 scientists and practitioners from 20 countries. Although they come from persons with in-depth knowledge of their respective fields, the chapters are written to be accessible to readers who are not trained in the specialized subjects. Taken together, the chapters provide students, researchers, practitioners, planners, and policy makers with a comprehensive understanding of both the science and the steps needed to regenerate and sustain soil systems around the world for the long-term benefit of humankind and the environment.
Author: Drew Austin Scott Publisher: ISBN: Category : Grassland restoration Languages : en Pages : 286
Book Description
The tallgrass prairie has been severely reduced in size, making restoration important to maintain communities and functions of this ecosystem. A chronosequence approach was used to determine recovery of physical and biological soil properties. The recovery models of soil properties provided information to explain the variation in total C stock of the whole soil. Recovery models also provided information to design a competition experiment based on variation in whole soil conditions with land use history. The filter framework hypothesis is a useful concept for examining tallgrass prairie restoration; the theory states only a subset of species in the region will be able to establish in a specific location due to abiotic and biotic filters. With this theory in mind, I explored the influence of whole soil conditions as affected by land use history (cultivation/restoration) and how these conditions altered plant-plant competition dynamics of a dominant grass was studied. Belowground plant biomass recovers with cessation of tillage and restoration back to prairie, providing an organic matter source for microbial populations to recover and soil macroaggregates to form. This has potential to increase C sequestration in soils and decrease nitrous oxide efflux from soils. Intact 5.5 cm dia cores were collected to a depth of 10 cm in each field to determine physical and biological soil properties. Belowground plant, microbial community, and soil structure properties were modeled to recover coinciding with an increase in total C stock of the whole soil. Structural equation modeling revealed that soil structure physically protecting organic matter explained the most variation in soil carbon sequestration with restoration. Most of the total C was contained within the macroaggregate size fraction; within this fraction most of that C is within the microaggregates within macroaggregates fraction. Soil structure is critical for recovery of soil carbon stocks and the microaggregate within macroaggregate fraction is the best diagnostic of sequestered C. ANCOVA results indicate that while the slopes of nitrous oxide efflux rates did not differ, cumulative efflux differed, though this was not related to time since restoration. Dominant grasses, such as Andropogon gerardii, can exclude subordinate species from grassland restorations. Thus, understanding changes in competition dynamics of dominant grasses could help maintain richness in grassland restorations. There may be changes in competition dynamics with whole soil conditions affected by land use history (cultivation/restoration) as plant available nutrients will decrease, microbial populations will increase, and soil structure will improve with restoration from cultivation to prairie. Using 4 soil treatments of varying land use history with four species treatments, to determine if effects are general or species specific, pairwise substitution competition experiments were conducted. Relative A. gerardii response to competition was compared among soil and species treatments using competition intensity and competition importance indices utilizing final plant biomass, relative growth rate based on maximum height, and net absolute tiller appearance rate. The experiment was conducted over 18 weeks, allowing A. gerardii to flower. A significant intensity result and significant importance results utilizing biomass measurements indicated that the 16 year restored prairie soil cause A. gerardii to be a relatively better competitor against forbs than in all other soils except for cultivated soil, likely due to positive plant-soil feedbacks. Significant importance results utilizing tiller appearance rate indicated that the cultivated and 3 year restored prairie soil caused A. gerardii to be a relatively better competitor than in the 16 year restored and never cultivated native prairie soils, likely due to changes in whole soil conditions related to land use history. There were only general soil effects, as soil treatments did not interact with species treatments. A. gerardii was a relatively better competitor against non-leguminous forbs, indicating that legumes are a better competitor for a limiting nutrient than A. gerardii or that this species is not in direct competition with legumes.
Author: Tyler Joseph Durre Publisher: ISBN: Category : Grasslands Languages : en Pages : 378
Book Description
Native tallgrass prairies were once considered to be the dominant pre-settlement vegetation type in the eastern third of the Great Plains, but are now designated as America's most endangered ecosystem due to conversion to agricultural land. Prairie mounds are unique soil features still present in remnant native tallgrass prairies across the United States. The main objective was to determine the effects of soil moisture regime (i.e., aquic and udic), mound position, (i.e., mound summit, backslope, toeslope, inter-mound), soil depth (i.e., 10-cm intervals from 0 to 90 cm), and their interactions on soil physical, chemical, and hydraulic properties in a mounded native tallgrass prairie in the Ozark Highlands region of northwest Arkansas. The secondary objective was to evaluate the effects of soil depth (i.e., 10, 20, 30, and 50 cm), mound position (i.e., mound summit and inter-mound), soil moisture regime (i.e., udic and aquic), and their interactions over time and to quantify the effects of soil moisture regime (i.e., udic and aquic), mound position (i.e., mound summit and inter-mound), sample date, and their interactions on prairie vegetation. Soil samples were collected in mid-April 2017, volumetric water content measurements were collected continuously from April 2017 - June 2018, and vegetation was sampled in June and August 2017 and in May and August 2018. Soil clay concentrations in the mound summits roughly doubled from 0-90 cm while the clay concentrations in the backslope, toeslope, and inter-mound increased by three to six times from 0-90 cm. The maximum soil volumetric water content for selected rainfall events was approximately 2.5 times greater at the 10-cm depth in the aquic inter-mound compared to the udic mound at 30 cm. Total aboveground dry matter was numerically largest (8489 kg ha-1) at the aquic summit in August 2018 and numerically smallest (1280 kg ha-1) at the aquic inter-mound in May 2018. The results of this study provide insight regarding soil nutrient contents and water dynamics of praire mounds and inter-mound areas, which are important for plant growth. Results clearly demonstrate that prairie restoration/management activities need to account for mound topography and differing soil moisture regimes to be most successful.
Author: Harold Gardner Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media ISBN: 144197427X Category : Science Languages : en Pages : 291
Book Description
This work advocates the restoration of the North American tallgrass prairie, which is rapidly disappearing. Historical descriptions of prairie aesthetics are outlined. As we are experiencing a worldwide mixing of plant species, prairie restoration is particularly important. Plants alien to North America do not readily support insect populations, including all animal species higher on the food chain. Prairie restoration methods are described for amateurs, academics, and land managers. Some of the techniques described are growing crops for seed production, times of seed gathering for specific species, facile seed processing for amateurs, land preparation, segregation of seed into its preference for habitat, and required seed treatment for germination. Over 200 species are described that comprise the predominant species found in tallgrass prairie nature preserves, as well as degraded prairies. Some additional plants of especial interest are also described. The appendix tabulates all likely species found on prairies regardless of their scarcity. Safe fire management of prairies is described in detail. Finally, methods of controlling aggressive alien weeds by herbicides are detailed.
Author: Erik E. Peterson Publisher: ISBN: Category : Grassland restoration Languages : en Pages : 0
Book Description
"The Palouse Prairie of Eastern Washington and Western Idaho, characterized by rolling hills of deep loess soil, is one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world, with more than 99% converted to tilled farmland. To mitigate this loss, Eastern Washington University has begun prairie restoration on a tilled wheat field adjacent to campus, in the northern extent of the Palouse Prairie Ecoregion. However, effective restoration requires understanding reference conditions, and there are relatively few studies of remnant prairie plant communities or soils, particularly in the Northern Palouse. From north to south in the Palouse Prairie Ecoregion, there are gradients in precipitation and temperature that affect plant communities. In addition, the Prairie is intersected by Channeled Scablands, which were formed when the ancient Missoula Floods washed away some of the loess hills, leaving exposed basalt. In deeper soil pockets, Channeled Scablands have plant communities overlapping with Palouse Prairie. In prairies, both the plants and the soil microbiome can play crucial structural roles in supporting the ecosystem. Successful restoration of degraded plant communities may rely on restoration of the original soil microbiome. Therefore, my goal was to identify and survey remnant prairie vascular plant communities in the region surrounding Eastern Washington University to understand how they vary from north to south and differ from Channeled Scabland, and to understand the role that intact prairie soils, with their complement of microbial species, can play in native plant growth. This resulted in a two-part thesis, with Chapter 1 documenting remnant plant communities, and Chapter 2 studying the effect of whole soil inoculation with native prairie soils on plant growth. To document how remnant prairie plant communities near EWU differ from sites in the iv southern Palouse and from Channeled scablands, I identified over 100 remnants from aerial imagery across Whitman and Spokane Counties, and conducted vegetation surveys at thirteen sites, including both Palouse Prairie and Channeled Scabland locations. Palouse Prairie and Channeled Scabland plant communities, while overlapping, had significant differences as indicated by PERMANOVA analysis. Palouse Prairie remnants had relative more native species, such as Symphoricarpos albus and Balsamorhiza sagittata, as indicators, while Channeled Scablands tended to have more invasive species, including invasive annual grasses such as Bromus tectorum and Poa bulbosa. There were also distinctive differences between northern and southern Palouse sites, with northern sites having more Pinus ponderosa and Geum triflorum while southern sites had more Ventenata dubia and Lomatium dissectum. Unlike when all sites were analyzed, Palouse site community composition was correlated with aspect and solar radiation. To determine the effect of the native prairie soil microbiome on native plant growth, I inoculated native and nonnative grass species with soil from native prairies and the restoration site in a greenhouse experiment. The three inoculum sources were Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge, the EWU restoration site, and Kamiak Butte. Plants were grown in unsterilized background soil collected from the EWU restoration site and sterile or unsterile soil inoculum. In general, inoculum source had no effect on either grass species but sterilization of inoculum resulted in increased growth of the native grass especially in soil collected from the EWU restoration. Invasive grass was unaffected by treatment. Results indicate possible nutrient limitation or altered soil microbiome at the EWU restoration site. Overall, my study results provide a better understanding of reference plant and soil communities for the EWU Prairie restoration site"--Pages iii- iv.
Author: Heather Anne Cray Publisher: ISBN: Category : Grassland ecology Languages : en Pages : 184
Book Description
Agriculture, urban development, and woody encroachment have reduced the North American tallgrass prairie ecosystem to less than 1% of its historical extent. The remnants of this now rare habitat are currently challenged not only by ongoing human disturbance but by the anticipated ecological regime shifts from anthropogenic climate change. In response, active restoration of tallgrass prairie is ongoing, aiming to re-establish native vegetation communities, often on former croplands. The success of tallgrass prairie restoration has been mixed and many knowledge gaps exist, especially pertaining to soil biota. With the goal of addressing key knowledge gaps identified by restoration practitioners, this thesis investigates the invasive earthworm populations of restored and remnant tallgrass prairie sites across southern Ontario, establishes the dietary preferences of the largest and most widespread invasive earthworm Lumbricus terrestris with respect to seeds commonly used in tallgrass prairie restoration, and examines below-ground (soil bacterial community) as well as traditional above-ground (vegetation community) measures of restoration success for different methods of tallgrass prairie restoration. The core significant original contributions of this dissertation are 1) invasive earthworms are present and abundant in all remnant and restored tallgrass prairies in southern Ontario; 2) the largest and most widespread invasive earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, can play an important role in seed granivory in tallgrass prairie habitats, and these effects are uneven across the target and weed species investigated; and 3) above- and below-ground measures of restoration success can tell different stories, and conventional restoration methods do not maintain microbial communities similar to high quality remnant prairie in the short term, whereas sod mat transplants do. Recommendations for practice include considering interactions with invasive earthworms in restoration and ecosystem management plans, considering alternative measures and methods of tallgrass prairie restoration, and broadening the definition of restoration success to encompass the retention and restoration of below-ground ecosystem components. By deliberately engaging the end-users of this research in question development and producing and communicating context-specific results and recommendations that can guide future management decisions, this dissertation is in line with the core tenants of translational ecology, which is suggested as a way forward for the discipline of restoration ecology.
Author: Saranya Norkaew Publisher: ISBN: Category : Languages : en Pages : 133
Book Description
Soil health assessment uses a combination of potential indicators affecting soil processes to comprehensively monitor soil change, caused by cropping systems and soil management. The objectives of the study were to assess the effects of selected cropping systems, soil management and landscape slope positions on the soil health characteristics of the Sanborn Field long-term experimental study in Columbia, Missouri, United States. Soil samples were collected on each of four dates over two years (8 th May 2014, 4th September 2014, 1st April 2016, and 18th August 2016) from selected plots to address each objective, and these time samples were used as replications. Soil physical, chemical, and biological characteristics were analyzed in the laboratory for these samples to assess soil health using the Cornell Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) method. To assess soil health in this study, soil health scoring was determined used R-studio version 1.1.149 to relate the interaction of cropping systems, soil management, and slope positions. Most soil resources on Sanborn Field are a poorly-drained claypan soil classified as a Mexico silt loam (fine, smectitic, mesic Vertic Epiaqualf). In addition, soil samples collected from Tucker Prairie was used as a proxy for the original state of Sanborn Field soils. The first study was conducted to evaluate the effects of long-term cropping systems on soil health properties. The results from the characterization indicated that continuous timothy (Phleum pretense L.) and warm season grass treatments were classified with very high soil health scores, and the lowest score was found for continuous corn (Zea mays L.). In addition, results showed strong positive linear associations between soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, potentially mineralizable nitrogen, active carbon, microbial biomass, and water stable aggregates; while a strong negative linear correlation existed between each of these properties and bulk density. The second study was conducted to evaluate the effects of long-term annual applications of no fertilizer, full fertilizer, and manure on soil health measurements of selected cropping systems. Different cropping systems, including continuous corn, continuous wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), corn-wheat-red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) rotation, and corn-soybean (Glycine max L.)-wheat rotation treatments were used in this study. Results showed that annual dairy cow (Bos Taurus) manure applications had the greatest effect on all soil health indicators and had the largest overall soil health score compared to full fertility and no fertilizer treatments. Moreover, continuous wheat with manure application presented the best combination of effects on soil properties with the largest score for most soil health indicators and an overall health score of 82 out of 100 classified as very high which is the best. The last study evaluated the effects of landscape slope positions on soil health properties of the long-term experiment. Results showed that the summit position had the highest overall soil health score while the lowest score was found on the shoulder position. However, there were no significant differences along the transect slope for water-stable aggregates and bulk density. There were significant differences along the transect for the biological properties such as soil organic carbon, active carbon, potentially mineralizable nitrogen, and microbial biomass. Results of this study illustrate the effect of selected variables on soil health and provide the recent addition of using biological characteristics to account for soil health properties. It is important to remember that this study of the long-term Sanborn Field experiment is just for a small-sized plot area. Future studies of soil management effects on soil health need to account for their own field conditions and their own unique environment.
Author: Stephen Packard Publisher: ISBN: Category : Nature Languages : en Pages : 504
Book Description
This hands-on manual provides a detailed account of what has been learned about the art and science of prairie restoration and the application of that knowledge to restoration projects throughout the world. The book explores a myriad of restoration philosophies and techniques and is an essential resource for anyone working to nurture our once-vibrant native landscapes to a state of health.
Author: Kirsten S. M. Kurtz
Author: Kirsten S. M. Kurtz
Author: Norman Uphoff
Author: Drew Austin Scott
Author: Tyler Joseph Durre
Author: Harold Gardner
Author: Erik E. Peterson
Author: Heather Anne Cray
Author: Saranya Norkaew
Author: Devan Allen McGranahan
Author: Stephen Packard