Author: Ofer Zwikael
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3030031748
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 341
Book Description
Winner of 2020 PMI David I. Cleland Project Management Literature Award This book is a complete project management toolkit for project leaders in business, research and industry. Projects are approved and financed to generate benefits. Project Management: A Benefit Realisation Approach proposes a complete framework that supports this objective – from project selection and definition, through execution, and beyond implementation of deliverables until benefits are secured. The book is the first to explain the creation of organisational value by suggesting a complete, internally-consistent and theoretically rigorous benefit-focused project management methodology, supported with an analytical technique: benefit engineering. Benefit engineering offers a practical approach to the design and maintenance of an organisation’s project portfolio. Building upon the authors’ earlier successful book, Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value, this comprehensively revised and expanded new book contains the addition of new chapters on project realisation. The book offers a rigorous explanation of how benefits emerge from a project. This approach is developed and strengthened — resulting in a completely client-oriented view of a project. Senior executives, practitioners, students and academics will find in this book a comprehensive guide to the conduct of projects, which includes robust models, a set of consistent principles, an integrated glossary, enabling tools, illustrative examples and case studies.
Project Management
Author: Ofer Zwikael
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3030031748
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 341
Book Description
Winner of 2020 PMI David I. Cleland Project Management Literature Award This book is a complete project management toolkit for project leaders in business, research and industry. Projects are approved and financed to generate benefits. Project Management: A Benefit Realisation Approach proposes a complete framework that supports this objective – from project selection and definition, through execution, and beyond implementation of deliverables until benefits are secured. The book is the first to explain the creation of organisational value by suggesting a complete, internally-consistent and theoretically rigorous benefit-focused project management methodology, supported with an analytical technique: benefit engineering. Benefit engineering offers a practical approach to the design and maintenance of an organisation’s project portfolio. Building upon the authors’ earlier successful book, Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value, this comprehensively revised and expanded new book contains the addition of new chapters on project realisation. The book offers a rigorous explanation of how benefits emerge from a project. This approach is developed and strengthened — resulting in a completely client-oriented view of a project. Senior executives, practitioners, students and academics will find in this book a comprehensive guide to the conduct of projects, which includes robust models, a set of consistent principles, an integrated glossary, enabling tools, illustrative examples and case studies.
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3030031748
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 341
Book Description
Winner of 2020 PMI David I. Cleland Project Management Literature Award This book is a complete project management toolkit for project leaders in business, research and industry. Projects are approved and financed to generate benefits. Project Management: A Benefit Realisation Approach proposes a complete framework that supports this objective – from project selection and definition, through execution, and beyond implementation of deliverables until benefits are secured. The book is the first to explain the creation of organisational value by suggesting a complete, internally-consistent and theoretically rigorous benefit-focused project management methodology, supported with an analytical technique: benefit engineering. Benefit engineering offers a practical approach to the design and maintenance of an organisation’s project portfolio. Building upon the authors’ earlier successful book, Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value, this comprehensively revised and expanded new book contains the addition of new chapters on project realisation. The book offers a rigorous explanation of how benefits emerge from a project. This approach is developed and strengthened — resulting in a completely client-oriented view of a project. Senior executives, practitioners, students and academics will find in this book a comprehensive guide to the conduct of projects, which includes robust models, a set of consistent principles, an integrated glossary, enabling tools, illustrative examples and case studies.
Benefits Realization Management
Author: Carlos Eduardo Martins Serra
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1315352338
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 210
Book Description
Benefits realization management (BRM) is a key part of governance, because it supports the strategic creation of value and provides the correct level of prioritization and executive support to the correct initiatives. Because of its relevance to the governance process, BRM has a strong influence over project success and is a link between strategic planning and strategy execution. This book guides portfolio, program, and project managers through the process of benefits realization management so they can maximize business value. It discusses why and how programs and projects are expected to enable value creation, and it explains the role of BRM in value creation. The book provides a flexible framework for: Translating business strategy drivers into expected benefits and explains the subsequent composition of a program and project portfolio that can realize expected benefits Planning the benefits realization expected from programs and projects and then making it happen Keeping programs and projects on track Reviewing and evaluating the benefits achieved or expected against the original baselines and the current expectations. To help project, program, and portfolio managers on their BRM journey, as well as to support business managers in executing business strategies, the book identifies key organizational responsibilities and roles involved in BRM practices, and it provides a simple reference that can be mapped against any organizational structure. A detailed and comprehensive case study illustrates each phase of the BRM framework as it links business strategy to project work, benefits, and business value. Each chapter ends with a series questions that provide a BRM self-assessment. The book concludes with a set of templates and detailed instructions to ensure successful deployment of BRM.
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1315352338
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 210
Book Description
Benefits realization management (BRM) is a key part of governance, because it supports the strategic creation of value and provides the correct level of prioritization and executive support to the correct initiatives. Because of its relevance to the governance process, BRM has a strong influence over project success and is a link between strategic planning and strategy execution. This book guides portfolio, program, and project managers through the process of benefits realization management so they can maximize business value. It discusses why and how programs and projects are expected to enable value creation, and it explains the role of BRM in value creation. The book provides a flexible framework for: Translating business strategy drivers into expected benefits and explains the subsequent composition of a program and project portfolio that can realize expected benefits Planning the benefits realization expected from programs and projects and then making it happen Keeping programs and projects on track Reviewing and evaluating the benefits achieved or expected against the original baselines and the current expectations. To help project, program, and portfolio managers on their BRM journey, as well as to support business managers in executing business strategies, the book identifies key organizational responsibilities and roles involved in BRM practices, and it provides a simple reference that can be mapped against any organizational structure. A detailed and comprehensive case study illustrates each phase of the BRM framework as it links business strategy to project work, benefits, and business value. Each chapter ends with a series questions that provide a BRM self-assessment. The book concludes with a set of templates and detailed instructions to ensure successful deployment of BRM.
Benefits Realization Management: A Practice Guide
Author:
Publisher: Project Management Institute
ISBN: 1628254815
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 133
Book Description
Benefits realization is the common thread that runs from organizational strategy through project deliverables that contribute benefits. Yet, according to PMI's 2018 Pulse of the Profession Report: Success in Disruptive Times, only one in three organizations report high benefits realization maturity. This practice guide provides a comprehensive look at the topic of benefits realization in of portfolio, program, and project management. It will help readers tackle this important topic and drive more successful outcomes and better strategic alignment in your organization. Inside this practice guide readers will find: standardized definitions for benefits realization, benefits realization management and associated benefits realization terms; the core principles of benefits realization; the benefits realization management life cycle from organizational mission, vision, and strategy through project deliverables and success measurement, and how it contributes to the expected benefits and value that the organization intends to realize; and a framework and guidance to help practitioners manage benefits realization in organizational project management and portfolio, program, and project management. As with all PMI standards and publications, this practice guide also aligns with our other standards including: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide)®—Sixth Edition; The Standard for Program Management—Fourth Edition; and The Standard for Portfolio Management—Fourth Edition.
Publisher: Project Management Institute
ISBN: 1628254815
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 133
Book Description
Benefits realization is the common thread that runs from organizational strategy through project deliverables that contribute benefits. Yet, according to PMI's 2018 Pulse of the Profession Report: Success in Disruptive Times, only one in three organizations report high benefits realization maturity. This practice guide provides a comprehensive look at the topic of benefits realization in of portfolio, program, and project management. It will help readers tackle this important topic and drive more successful outcomes and better strategic alignment in your organization. Inside this practice guide readers will find: standardized definitions for benefits realization, benefits realization management and associated benefits realization terms; the core principles of benefits realization; the benefits realization management life cycle from organizational mission, vision, and strategy through project deliverables and success measurement, and how it contributes to the expected benefits and value that the organization intends to realize; and a framework and guidance to help practitioners manage benefits realization in organizational project management and portfolio, program, and project management. As with all PMI standards and publications, this practice guide also aligns with our other standards including: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide)®—Sixth Edition; The Standard for Program Management—Fourth Edition; and The Standard for Portfolio Management—Fourth Edition.
Managing Benefits
Author: Steve Jenner
Publisher:
ISBN: 9780117082519
Category : Capital investments
Languages : en
Pages : 271
Book Description
Projects and programmes should achieve a return on the investment made by the owner or sponsor. This return is now thought of as the benefits that accrue from the investment: some financial, others perhaps harder to define, but nonetheless just as important in justifying the investment. Making sure that they are realised, and that unanticipated benefits are maximised, is as important as the initial justification, and without that many projects have earned a bad name for project management. This publication provides comprehensive guidance on how to manage delivery of the benefits used to justify investment in change. It provides guidance for all involved in successful change delivery from senior responsible owners and directors through to portfolio, programme and project managers. The guidance is the source material for an accredited qualification from APMG-International
Publisher:
ISBN: 9780117082519
Category : Capital investments
Languages : en
Pages : 271
Book Description
Projects and programmes should achieve a return on the investment made by the owner or sponsor. This return is now thought of as the benefits that accrue from the investment: some financial, others perhaps harder to define, but nonetheless just as important in justifying the investment. Making sure that they are realised, and that unanticipated benefits are maximised, is as important as the initial justification, and without that many projects have earned a bad name for project management. This publication provides comprehensive guidance on how to manage delivery of the benefits used to justify investment in change. It provides guidance for all involved in successful change delivery from senior responsible owners and directors through to portfolio, programme and project managers. The guidance is the source material for an accredited qualification from APMG-International
Benefit Realisation Management
Author: Gerald Bradley
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1317175182
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 393
Book Description
The first edition of Gerald Bradley's Benefit Realisation Management quickly established itself as the definitive, practical guide to using measures to track performance throughout the life of a project or programme; enabling organisations to eliminate wasted investment, realise more benefits and realise them earlier. The second edition takes you step-by-step through the benefits realisation process, explaining along the way, how to: * define your projects and programmes by mapping the benefits * produce a convincing and accurate business case * communicate the benefits and get all your stakeholders on board * agree the measures you will use to encourage the desired behaviours, to monitor progress and to assess the ultimate success of the project or programme * use the benefits realisation approach to understand and address the human aspects of the project, including resistance to change, training needs and new ways of working * integrate this approach into your organisation's culture and systems The second edition includes expanded guidance on benefits realisation for portfolio management and includes revisions to the original text along with additional case study examples. The text of the latest edition is now printed in four-colour which make the detailed and varied benefit maps throughout the text immediately more striking and comprehensible. The benefits realisation management methodology fits closely with existing programme and project management approaches such as MSP and Prince 2, making it appropriate for both public and private sector environments. If you are investing heavily in change management, IT infrastructure or project working, then this book is a must-read that will justify its price many times over.
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1317175182
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 393
Book Description
The first edition of Gerald Bradley's Benefit Realisation Management quickly established itself as the definitive, practical guide to using measures to track performance throughout the life of a project or programme; enabling organisations to eliminate wasted investment, realise more benefits and realise them earlier. The second edition takes you step-by-step through the benefits realisation process, explaining along the way, how to: * define your projects and programmes by mapping the benefits * produce a convincing and accurate business case * communicate the benefits and get all your stakeholders on board * agree the measures you will use to encourage the desired behaviours, to monitor progress and to assess the ultimate success of the project or programme * use the benefits realisation approach to understand and address the human aspects of the project, including resistance to change, training needs and new ways of working * integrate this approach into your organisation's culture and systems The second edition includes expanded guidance on benefits realisation for portfolio management and includes revisions to the original text along with additional case study examples. The text of the latest edition is now printed in four-colour which make the detailed and varied benefit maps throughout the text immediately more striking and comprehensible. The benefits realisation management methodology fits closely with existing programme and project management approaches such as MSP and Prince 2, making it appropriate for both public and private sector environments. If you are investing heavily in change management, IT infrastructure or project working, then this book is a must-read that will justify its price many times over.
Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value
Author: Ofer Zwikael
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 1849965161
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 362
Book Description
Projects and programmes are approved and funded to generate benefits. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value proposes a complete framework that seeks to support such an objective – from project selection and definition, through execution, and beyond implementation of deliverables until benefits are secured. Because it is preoccupied with deliverables, accepted project management practice is flawed. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value proposes an alternative approach, which seeks a flow of target outcomes for the organisation investing in the project. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value provides support for all those who play a role of leadership in projects at different levels. Senior executives, practitioners and academics will find in this book a comprehensive guide to the conduct of projects and programmes, which includes robust models, a set of consistent principles, an integrated glossary, enabling tools, illustrative examples and case studies. A companion workbook to this text for instructors and students is available online at http://extras.springer.com. The workbook illustrates project management concepts using the approach presented in this book and contains a range of exercises.
Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN: 1849965161
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 362
Book Description
Projects and programmes are approved and funded to generate benefits. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value proposes a complete framework that seeks to support such an objective – from project selection and definition, through execution, and beyond implementation of deliverables until benefits are secured. Because it is preoccupied with deliverables, accepted project management practice is flawed. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value proposes an alternative approach, which seeks a flow of target outcomes for the organisation investing in the project. Project Management for the Creation of Organisational Value provides support for all those who play a role of leadership in projects at different levels. Senior executives, practitioners and academics will find in this book a comprehensive guide to the conduct of projects and programmes, which includes robust models, a set of consistent principles, an integrated glossary, enabling tools, illustrative examples and case studies. A companion workbook to this text for instructors and students is available online at http://extras.springer.com. The workbook illustrates project management concepts using the approach presented in this book and contains a range of exercises.
Customer-Centric Project Management
Author: Mr Phil Peplow
Publisher: Gower Publishing, Ltd.
ISBN: 1409483797
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 137
Book Description
There has been a sea-change in the focus of organizations - whether private or public - away from a traditional product- or service-centricity towards customer-centricity and projects are just as much a part of that change. Projects must deliver value; projects must involve stakeholders, and Elizabeth Harrin and Phil Peplow demonstrate convincingly that stakeholders are the ones who get to decide what ‘value’ actually means. Customer-Centric Project Management is a short guide explaining what customer-centricity means in terms of how you work and its importance for project performance; using tools and processes to guide customer-centric thinking will help you see the results of engagement and demonstrate how things can improve, even on difficult projects. The text provides a straightforward implementation guide to moving your own business to a customer-centric way of working, using a model called Exceed and provides some guidance for ensuring that customer-centricity is sustainable and supported in the organization. This is a practical, rigorous and well-researched text. It draws on established models and uses the example of project implementation in a healthcare environment to demonstrate the impact of this significant way of thinking about value. The authors can’t guarantee that the Exceed process will radically improve project success rates, and no process can. Adopting a customer-centric mindset and using the Exceed process to measure and monitor customer satisfaction will, however, help you move towards working with happier, more engaged stakeholders.
Publisher: Gower Publishing, Ltd.
ISBN: 1409483797
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 137
Book Description
There has been a sea-change in the focus of organizations - whether private or public - away from a traditional product- or service-centricity towards customer-centricity and projects are just as much a part of that change. Projects must deliver value; projects must involve stakeholders, and Elizabeth Harrin and Phil Peplow demonstrate convincingly that stakeholders are the ones who get to decide what ‘value’ actually means. Customer-Centric Project Management is a short guide explaining what customer-centricity means in terms of how you work and its importance for project performance; using tools and processes to guide customer-centric thinking will help you see the results of engagement and demonstrate how things can improve, even on difficult projects. The text provides a straightforward implementation guide to moving your own business to a customer-centric way of working, using a model called Exceed and provides some guidance for ensuring that customer-centricity is sustainable and supported in the organization. This is a practical, rigorous and well-researched text. It draws on established models and uses the example of project implementation in a healthcare environment to demonstrate the impact of this significant way of thinking about value. The authors can’t guarantee that the Exceed process will radically improve project success rates, and no process can. Adopting a customer-centric mindset and using the Exceed process to measure and monitor customer satisfaction will, however, help you move towards working with happier, more engaged stakeholders.
Project Benefit Realisation and Project Management
Author: Raymond C. Young
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119368235
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 144
Book Description
PROJECT BENEFIT REALISATION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT Dispels the confusion between project management success and project success, showing how project sponsors can govern their projects to succeed in delivering the strategic benefits originally envisaged Project management success does not automatically lead to project success. Many large projects fail to live up to expectations, with between half and two-thirds of large projects either failing to deliver or delivering few strategic benefits. Traditional project management resources focus on delivering a project on time and on budget, yet they fail to supply top managers, many of whom find themselves in the role of accidental project sponsors, with guidance on how to govern their projects to succeed. Project Benefit Realisation and Project Management: The 6Q Governance Approach bridges the strategy to performance gap by providing boards, senior managers and project sponsors with the six critical questions necessary to diagnose the health of any project. Presenting a systematic framework developed from research cases of successful and unsuccessful projects in various types of organisations, this practical guide enables those in top management to determine if their strategy or policy is on track and to assess whether a project is likely to deliver the expected benefits. The text features real-world examples illustrating how concepts can be applied to different types of projects in engineering, construction, information technology, business transformation and many others. This must-have guide is designed to help top managers and other stakeholders: Clarify the link between business outcomes, benefits, and strategy to evaluate where effort should be directed Assess how much behavioural change is required to effectively implement strategy and realise desired benefits Select a project sponsor committed to influencing key stakeholders to make necessary changes and intercede to resolve issues as they arise Establish how success will be measured before a project begins, to gauge sponsor commitment and ensure project goals are not changed to match whatever is achieved Ask if the right culture is in place to ensure all relevant information is being reported Determine teams’ ability to adapt and change plans in response to issues arising in the project Monitor if the project is on track to realising the benefits and have a process in place to cancel failing projects Project Benefit Realisation and Project Management: The 6Q Governance Approach is an indispensable volume for board members, project sponsors, project advisors and those in senior positions who find themselves in the role of accidental project sponsors.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119368235
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 144
Book Description
PROJECT BENEFIT REALISATION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT Dispels the confusion between project management success and project success, showing how project sponsors can govern their projects to succeed in delivering the strategic benefits originally envisaged Project management success does not automatically lead to project success. Many large projects fail to live up to expectations, with between half and two-thirds of large projects either failing to deliver or delivering few strategic benefits. Traditional project management resources focus on delivering a project on time and on budget, yet they fail to supply top managers, many of whom find themselves in the role of accidental project sponsors, with guidance on how to govern their projects to succeed. Project Benefit Realisation and Project Management: The 6Q Governance Approach bridges the strategy to performance gap by providing boards, senior managers and project sponsors with the six critical questions necessary to diagnose the health of any project. Presenting a systematic framework developed from research cases of successful and unsuccessful projects in various types of organisations, this practical guide enables those in top management to determine if their strategy or policy is on track and to assess whether a project is likely to deliver the expected benefits. The text features real-world examples illustrating how concepts can be applied to different types of projects in engineering, construction, information technology, business transformation and many others. This must-have guide is designed to help top managers and other stakeholders: Clarify the link between business outcomes, benefits, and strategy to evaluate where effort should be directed Assess how much behavioural change is required to effectively implement strategy and realise desired benefits Select a project sponsor committed to influencing key stakeholders to make necessary changes and intercede to resolve issues as they arise Establish how success will be measured before a project begins, to gauge sponsor commitment and ensure project goals are not changed to match whatever is achieved Ask if the right culture is in place to ensure all relevant information is being reported Determine teams’ ability to adapt and change plans in response to issues arising in the project Monitor if the project is on track to realising the benefits and have a process in place to cancel failing projects Project Benefit Realisation and Project Management: The 6Q Governance Approach is an indispensable volume for board members, project sponsors, project advisors and those in senior positions who find themselves in the role of accidental project sponsors.
Benefits Management
Author: John Ward
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118381602
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 373
Book Description
The second edition of Benefits Management has been updated with current examples, further insights from experience and recent research. It shows how the enduring challenges achieving business value from information systems and technology projects can be addressed successfully. The approach, which is synthesized from best practices, sound theories and proven techniques from a range of management disciplines, is exemplified from the authors' extensive experience of working with a wide range of organizations. The book includes examples from a wide variety of projects including non-IT projects. The book is written in an accessible style, ideal for practicing managers, and includes check lists and templates for using the processes, tools and techniques and real-life case studies of their application and impacts. The book now also includes: International survey results that reinforce the importance of the topic, the key management issues and evidence of how the more successful organizations' practices are closely aligned with those described in the book. A Benefits Management Maturity diagnostic which enables organizations to understand the reasons for their current investment success levels and then how to increase them. Discussion of the role and contribution Project Management Offices (PMOs): how they can improve the delivery of value IT projects. Further practical advice and guidance on Program and Portfolio Management, including findings from the authors’ recent research in several large organizations.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118381602
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 373
Book Description
The second edition of Benefits Management has been updated with current examples, further insights from experience and recent research. It shows how the enduring challenges achieving business value from information systems and technology projects can be addressed successfully. The approach, which is synthesized from best practices, sound theories and proven techniques from a range of management disciplines, is exemplified from the authors' extensive experience of working with a wide range of organizations. The book includes examples from a wide variety of projects including non-IT projects. The book is written in an accessible style, ideal for practicing managers, and includes check lists and templates for using the processes, tools and techniques and real-life case studies of their application and impacts. The book now also includes: International survey results that reinforce the importance of the topic, the key management issues and evidence of how the more successful organizations' practices are closely aligned with those described in the book. A Benefits Management Maturity diagnostic which enables organizations to understand the reasons for their current investment success levels and then how to increase them. Discussion of the role and contribution Project Management Offices (PMOs): how they can improve the delivery of value IT projects. Further practical advice and guidance on Program and Portfolio Management, including findings from the authors’ recent research in several large organizations.
Governance of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects
Author: Project Management Institute
Publisher: Project Management Institute
ISBN: 1628251107
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 177
Book Description
Understanding governance as it applies to portfolios, programs, and projects is growing in importance to organizations, because appropriate governance is a factor in the success or failure of strategic initiatives and portfolios, as well as an organization's programs and projects. Implementing an effective governance framework can be challenging due to factors such as increasing business complexities, regulatory requirements, globalization, and rapid changes in technology and business environments. Many organizations do not have a consistent approach to portfolio, program, and project governance. PMI's Governance of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects: A Practice Guide, developed by leading experts in the field, provides guidance to organizations and practitioners on how to implement or enhance governance on portfolios, programs, and projects. This practice guide provides definitions for governance in an effort to distinguish the different levels of governance and to identify their common elements.
Publisher: Project Management Institute
ISBN: 1628251107
Category : Business & Economics
Languages : en
Pages : 177
Book Description
Understanding governance as it applies to portfolios, programs, and projects is growing in importance to organizations, because appropriate governance is a factor in the success or failure of strategic initiatives and portfolios, as well as an organization's programs and projects. Implementing an effective governance framework can be challenging due to factors such as increasing business complexities, regulatory requirements, globalization, and rapid changes in technology and business environments. Many organizations do not have a consistent approach to portfolio, program, and project governance. PMI's Governance of Portfolios, Programs, and Projects: A Practice Guide, developed by leading experts in the field, provides guidance to organizations and practitioners on how to implement or enhance governance on portfolios, programs, and projects. This practice guide provides definitions for governance in an effort to distinguish the different levels of governance and to identify their common elements.