Author: Frederick B. Mills
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3319945505
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 186
Book Description
This book introduces the methodology and basic concepts of Dussel’s ethics of liberation. Enrique Dussel is one of the principal founders of the philosophy of liberation in Latin America. Frederick B. Mills discusses how, for Dussel, we can realize our co-responsibility for human life by responding, in accord with ethical principles, to the appeals of victims of the prevailing capital system. Mills shows how these principles, when subsumed in the political and economic fields, aim at overcoming the ongoing assault on human life and nature and provide a moral compass for forging a path to liberation. He makes the case that the study of Dussel is critical to the understanding of liberatory thought in Latin America today. This book aims to introduce the ethics of liberation to a broader audience in the Global North where Dussel's ideas are urgently relevant to progressive political and economic theory and praxis.
Enrique Dussel’s Ethics of Liberation
Author: Frederick B. Mills
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3319945505
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 186
Book Description
This book introduces the methodology and basic concepts of Dussel’s ethics of liberation. Enrique Dussel is one of the principal founders of the philosophy of liberation in Latin America. Frederick B. Mills discusses how, for Dussel, we can realize our co-responsibility for human life by responding, in accord with ethical principles, to the appeals of victims of the prevailing capital system. Mills shows how these principles, when subsumed in the political and economic fields, aim at overcoming the ongoing assault on human life and nature and provide a moral compass for forging a path to liberation. He makes the case that the study of Dussel is critical to the understanding of liberatory thought in Latin America today. This book aims to introduce the ethics of liberation to a broader audience in the Global North where Dussel's ideas are urgently relevant to progressive political and economic theory and praxis.
Publisher: Springer
ISBN: 3319945505
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 186
Book Description
This book introduces the methodology and basic concepts of Dussel’s ethics of liberation. Enrique Dussel is one of the principal founders of the philosophy of liberation in Latin America. Frederick B. Mills discusses how, for Dussel, we can realize our co-responsibility for human life by responding, in accord with ethical principles, to the appeals of victims of the prevailing capital system. Mills shows how these principles, when subsumed in the political and economic fields, aim at overcoming the ongoing assault on human life and nature and provide a moral compass for forging a path to liberation. He makes the case that the study of Dussel is critical to the understanding of liberatory thought in Latin America today. This book aims to introduce the ethics of liberation to a broader audience in the Global North where Dussel's ideas are urgently relevant to progressive political and economic theory and praxis.
Latin American Philosophy from Identity to Radical Exteriority
Author: Alejandro A. Vallega
Publisher: Indiana University Press
ISBN: 0253012651
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 296
Book Description
While recognizing its origins and scope, Alejandro A. Vallega offers a new interpretation of Latin American philosophy by looking at its radical and transformative roots. Placing it in dialogue with Western philosophical traditions, Vallega examines developments in gender studies, race theory, postcolonial theory, and the legacy of cultural dependency in light of the Latin American experience. He explores Latin America's engagement with contemporary problems in Western philosophy and describes the transformative impact of this encounter on contemporary thought.
Publisher: Indiana University Press
ISBN: 0253012651
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 296
Book Description
While recognizing its origins and scope, Alejandro A. Vallega offers a new interpretation of Latin American philosophy by looking at its radical and transformative roots. Placing it in dialogue with Western philosophical traditions, Vallega examines developments in gender studies, race theory, postcolonial theory, and the legacy of cultural dependency in light of the Latin American experience. He explores Latin America's engagement with contemporary problems in Western philosophy and describes the transformative impact of this encounter on contemporary thought.
Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala
Author: Luis Ruben Diaz Cepeda
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1394181248
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 230
Book Description
Presents struggles for liberation in the Americas from the perspectives of structural victims Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala explores the ways people occupying different positionalities respond to various catastrophes while discussing how collective processes of struggle make new meanings and create new forms of relationality and subjectivity. Bringing together contributions by a diverse panel of well-established voices and rising scholars, this provocative volume challenges readers to resist, take direct collective action, organize, protest, and give proper uptake to social movements that fight against injustice and life-threatening conditions. Operating primarily within the context of “Abya Yala” — the term deployed by indigenous peoples to refer to the US, Latin America, and the Caribbean — the volume demonstrates and advances the explanatory and normative power of Philosophy of Liberation and the Decolonial Turn through theoretical analysis of current social changes unfolding in the Americas. Throughout the book, academic scholars and on-the-ground activists illustrate the reach, impact, and implications of radical social transformations that support victims of the system. Offering perspectives from the people who have chosen to rebel and act in solidarity against the system that oppresses them, Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala: Addresses different struggles for social justice in the US, México and Latin America Draws from philosophical tradition with influence in Africana philosophy, feminism, critical race theory, ethics, and political philosophy Tasks readers to fight for reparations, stand in solidarity with marginalized and indigenous peoples, and abolish dispossession Critiques the capitalist and colonial relationships that facilitate the exploitation of large segments of the population Promotes social mobilization through education and the decolonization of Westernized university and educational practices An urgent call to action for all those seeking to fundamentally change the world, Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala is a must-read for undergraduate and graduate students, educators and university lecturers, academic researchers and scholars, social and political activists, policymakers, journalists and media professionals, and general readers who are committed to liberation.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1394181248
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 230
Book Description
Presents struggles for liberation in the Americas from the perspectives of structural victims Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala explores the ways people occupying different positionalities respond to various catastrophes while discussing how collective processes of struggle make new meanings and create new forms of relationality and subjectivity. Bringing together contributions by a diverse panel of well-established voices and rising scholars, this provocative volume challenges readers to resist, take direct collective action, organize, protest, and give proper uptake to social movements that fight against injustice and life-threatening conditions. Operating primarily within the context of “Abya Yala” — the term deployed by indigenous peoples to refer to the US, Latin America, and the Caribbean — the volume demonstrates and advances the explanatory and normative power of Philosophy of Liberation and the Decolonial Turn through theoretical analysis of current social changes unfolding in the Americas. Throughout the book, academic scholars and on-the-ground activists illustrate the reach, impact, and implications of radical social transformations that support victims of the system. Offering perspectives from the people who have chosen to rebel and act in solidarity against the system that oppresses them, Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala: Addresses different struggles for social justice in the US, México and Latin America Draws from philosophical tradition with influence in Africana philosophy, feminism, critical race theory, ethics, and political philosophy Tasks readers to fight for reparations, stand in solidarity with marginalized and indigenous peoples, and abolish dispossession Critiques the capitalist and colonial relationships that facilitate the exploitation of large segments of the population Promotes social mobilization through education and the decolonization of Westernized university and educational practices An urgent call to action for all those seeking to fundamentally change the world, Struggles for Liberation in Abya Yala is a must-read for undergraduate and graduate students, educators and university lecturers, academic researchers and scholars, social and political activists, policymakers, journalists and media professionals, and general readers who are committed to liberation.
Social Movements and Latin American Philosophy
Author: Luis Rubén Díaz Cepeda
Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN: 1498560547
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 157
Book Description
Social Movements and Latin American Philosophy: From Ciudad Juarez to Ayotzinapa provides a historical and theoretical analysis of the Ayotzinapa social movement from the perspective of Latin American philosophy to provide a deeper understanding of the challenges that social movements face in the context of extreme violence. Luis Rubén Díaz Cepeda analyzes the complete cycle of mobilization appertaining to Ciudad Juárez, the Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity, and the Ayotzinapa social movement. Guided by the theories of Enrique Dussel, Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Ernesto Laclau, and Santiago Castro-Gomez, Díaz Cepeda addresses questions of how a social movement is born, how the distinct social movement organizations should articulate to form a movement of movements, what (if at all) the limits and extent of these organizations should be. In raising and addressing such questions, Díaz Cepeda argues in favor of a soft articulation and the perennial need for social movement organizations. Scholars of Latin American studies, philosophy, history, and sociology will find this book particularly useful.
Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN: 1498560547
Category : Philosophy
Languages : en
Pages : 157
Book Description
Social Movements and Latin American Philosophy: From Ciudad Juarez to Ayotzinapa provides a historical and theoretical analysis of the Ayotzinapa social movement from the perspective of Latin American philosophy to provide a deeper understanding of the challenges that social movements face in the context of extreme violence. Luis Rubén Díaz Cepeda analyzes the complete cycle of mobilization appertaining to Ciudad Juárez, the Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity, and the Ayotzinapa social movement. Guided by the theories of Enrique Dussel, Boaventura de Sousa Santos, Ernesto Laclau, and Santiago Castro-Gomez, Díaz Cepeda addresses questions of how a social movement is born, how the distinct social movement organizations should articulate to form a movement of movements, what (if at all) the limits and extent of these organizations should be. In raising and addressing such questions, Díaz Cepeda argues in favor of a soft articulation and the perennial need for social movement organizations. Scholars of Latin American studies, philosophy, history, and sociology will find this book particularly useful.
Twenty Theses on Politics
Author: Enrique Dussel
Publisher: Duke University Press
ISBN: 0822389444
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 182
Book Description
First published in Spanish in 2006, Twenty Theses on Politics is a major statement on political philosophy from Enrique Dussel, one of Latin America’s—and the world’s—most important philosophers, and a founder of the philosophy of liberation. Synthesizing a half-century of his pioneering work in moral and political philosophy, Dussel presents a succinct rationale for the development of political alternatives to the exclusionary, exploitative institutions of neoliberal globalization. In twenty short, provocative theses he lays out the foundational elements for a politics of just and sustainable coexistence. Dussel first constructs a theory of political power and its institutionalization, taking on topics such as the purpose of politics and the fetishization of power. He insists that political projects must criticize or reject as unsustainable all political systems, actions, and institutions whose negative effects are suffered by oppressed or excluded victims. Turning to the deconstruction or transformation of political power, he explains the political principles of liberation and addresses matters such as reform and revolution. Twenty Theses on Politics is inspired by recent political transformations in Latin America. As Dussel writes in Thesis 15, regarding the liberation praxis of social and political movements, “The winds that arrive from the South—from Nestor Kirchner, Tabaré Vásquez, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Evo Morales, Hugo Chávez, Fidel Castro, and so many others—show us that things can be changed. The people must reclaim sovereignty!” Throughout the twenty theses Dussel engages with Latin American thinkers and activists and with radical political projects such as the World Social Forum. He is also in dialogue with the ideas of Marx, Hegel, Habermas, Rawls, and Negri, offering insights into the applications and limits of their thinking in light of recent Latin American political thought and practice.
Publisher: Duke University Press
ISBN: 0822389444
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 182
Book Description
First published in Spanish in 2006, Twenty Theses on Politics is a major statement on political philosophy from Enrique Dussel, one of Latin America’s—and the world’s—most important philosophers, and a founder of the philosophy of liberation. Synthesizing a half-century of his pioneering work in moral and political philosophy, Dussel presents a succinct rationale for the development of political alternatives to the exclusionary, exploitative institutions of neoliberal globalization. In twenty short, provocative theses he lays out the foundational elements for a politics of just and sustainable coexistence. Dussel first constructs a theory of political power and its institutionalization, taking on topics such as the purpose of politics and the fetishization of power. He insists that political projects must criticize or reject as unsustainable all political systems, actions, and institutions whose negative effects are suffered by oppressed or excluded victims. Turning to the deconstruction or transformation of political power, he explains the political principles of liberation and addresses matters such as reform and revolution. Twenty Theses on Politics is inspired by recent political transformations in Latin America. As Dussel writes in Thesis 15, regarding the liberation praxis of social and political movements, “The winds that arrive from the South—from Nestor Kirchner, Tabaré Vásquez, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Evo Morales, Hugo Chávez, Fidel Castro, and so many others—show us that things can be changed. The people must reclaim sovereignty!” Throughout the twenty theses Dussel engages with Latin American thinkers and activists and with radical political projects such as the World Social Forum. He is also in dialogue with the ideas of Marx, Hegel, Habermas, Rawls, and Negri, offering insights into the applications and limits of their thinking in light of recent Latin American political thought and practice.
Imagining the Plains of Latin America
Author: Axel Pérez Trujillo Diniz
Publisher: Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN: 1350134309
Category : Social Science
Languages : en
Pages : 184
Book Description
From the Pampas lowlands of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil to the Altiplano plateau that stretches between Chile and Peru, the plains of Latin America have haunted the literature and culture of the continent. Bringing these landscapes into focus as a major subject of Latin American culture, this book outlines innovative new ecocritcial readings of canonical literary texts from the 19th century to the present. Tracing these natural landscapes across national borders the book develops a new transnational understanding of Hispanic culture in South America and expands the scope of the contemporary environmental humanities. Texts covered include works by: Ciro Alegría, Manoel de Barros, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Rómulo Gallegos, José Eustasio Rivera, João Guimarães Rosa, and Domingo Sarmiento.
Publisher: Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN: 1350134309
Category : Social Science
Languages : en
Pages : 184
Book Description
From the Pampas lowlands of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil to the Altiplano plateau that stretches between Chile and Peru, the plains of Latin America have haunted the literature and culture of the continent. Bringing these landscapes into focus as a major subject of Latin American culture, this book outlines innovative new ecocritcial readings of canonical literary texts from the 19th century to the present. Tracing these natural landscapes across national borders the book develops a new transnational understanding of Hispanic culture in South America and expands the scope of the contemporary environmental humanities. Texts covered include works by: Ciro Alegría, Manoel de Barros, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Rómulo Gallegos, José Eustasio Rivera, João Guimarães Rosa, and Domingo Sarmiento.
Democracy 2.0
Author: Paul R. Carr
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9463512306
Category : Education
Languages : en
Pages : 249
Book Description
Participatory media 2.0 have shifted the terrain of public life. We are all—individually and collectively—able to produce and circulate media to a potentially limitless audience, and we are all, at minimum, arbiters of knowledge and information through the choices—or clicks—we make when online. In this new environment of two-way and multidimensional media flow, digital communication tools, platforms and spaces offer enormous potential for the cultivation, development and circulation of diverse and counter-hegemonic perspectives. It has also provoked a crisis of communication between oppositional “echo chambers.” Democracy requires a functioning, critically-engaged and literate populace, one that can participate in, cultivate and shape, in meaningful and critical ways, the discourses and forms of the society in which it exists. Education for democracy, therefore, requires not only political literacy but also media and digital literacies, given the ubiquity and immersiveness of Media 2.0 in our lives. In Democracy 2.0, we feature a series of evocative, international case studies that document the impact of alternative and community use of media, in general, and Web 2.0 in particular. The aim is to foster critical reflection on social realities, developing the context for coalition-building in support of social change and social justice. The chapters herein examine activist uses of social and visual media within a broad and critical frame, underpinning the potential of alternative and DIY (Do It Yourself) media to impact and help forge community relationships, to foster engagement in the civic and social life of citizens across the globe and, ultimately, to support thicker forms of democratic participation, engagement and conscientization, beyond electoralist, representative, normative democracy.
Publisher: BRILL
ISBN: 9463512306
Category : Education
Languages : en
Pages : 249
Book Description
Participatory media 2.0 have shifted the terrain of public life. We are all—individually and collectively—able to produce and circulate media to a potentially limitless audience, and we are all, at minimum, arbiters of knowledge and information through the choices—or clicks—we make when online. In this new environment of two-way and multidimensional media flow, digital communication tools, platforms and spaces offer enormous potential for the cultivation, development and circulation of diverse and counter-hegemonic perspectives. It has also provoked a crisis of communication between oppositional “echo chambers.” Democracy requires a functioning, critically-engaged and literate populace, one that can participate in, cultivate and shape, in meaningful and critical ways, the discourses and forms of the society in which it exists. Education for democracy, therefore, requires not only political literacy but also media and digital literacies, given the ubiquity and immersiveness of Media 2.0 in our lives. In Democracy 2.0, we feature a series of evocative, international case studies that document the impact of alternative and community use of media, in general, and Web 2.0 in particular. The aim is to foster critical reflection on social realities, developing the context for coalition-building in support of social change and social justice. The chapters herein examine activist uses of social and visual media within a broad and critical frame, underpinning the potential of alternative and DIY (Do It Yourself) media to impact and help forge community relationships, to foster engagement in the civic and social life of citizens across the globe and, ultimately, to support thicker forms of democratic participation, engagement and conscientization, beyond electoralist, representative, normative democracy.
The Politics of Political Science
Author: Paulo Ravecca
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 1351110535
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 275
Book Description
In this thought-provoking book, Paulo Ravecca presents a series of interlocking studies on the politics of political science in the Americas. Focusing mainly on the cases of Chile and Uruguay, Ravecca employs different strands of critical theory to challenge the mainstream narrative about the development of the discipline in the region, emphasizing its ideological aspects and demonstrating how the discipline itself has been shaped by power relations. Ravecca metaphorically charts the (non-linear) transit from “cold” to “warm” to “hot” intellectual temperatures to illustrate his—alternative—narrative. Beginning with a detailed quantitative study of three regional academic journals, moving to the analysis of the role of subjectivity (and political trauma) in academia and its discourse in relation to the dictatorships in Chile and Uruguay, and arriving finally at an intimate meditation on the experience of being a queer scholar in the Latin American academy of the 21st century, Ravecca guides his readers through differing explorations, languages, and methods. The Politics of Political Science: Re-Writing Latin American Experiences offers an essential reflection on both the relationship between knowledges and politics and the political and ethical role of the scholar today, demonstrating how the study of the politics of knowledge deepens our understanding of the politics of our times.
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 1351110535
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 275
Book Description
In this thought-provoking book, Paulo Ravecca presents a series of interlocking studies on the politics of political science in the Americas. Focusing mainly on the cases of Chile and Uruguay, Ravecca employs different strands of critical theory to challenge the mainstream narrative about the development of the discipline in the region, emphasizing its ideological aspects and demonstrating how the discipline itself has been shaped by power relations. Ravecca metaphorically charts the (non-linear) transit from “cold” to “warm” to “hot” intellectual temperatures to illustrate his—alternative—narrative. Beginning with a detailed quantitative study of three regional academic journals, moving to the analysis of the role of subjectivity (and political trauma) in academia and its discourse in relation to the dictatorships in Chile and Uruguay, and arriving finally at an intimate meditation on the experience of being a queer scholar in the Latin American academy of the 21st century, Ravecca guides his readers through differing explorations, languages, and methods. The Politics of Political Science: Re-Writing Latin American Experiences offers an essential reflection on both the relationship between knowledges and politics and the political and ethical role of the scholar today, demonstrating how the study of the politics of knowledge deepens our understanding of the politics of our times.
Interconnectivity, Subversion, and Healing in World Christianity
Author: Afe Adogame
Publisher: Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN: 1350333417
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 227
Book Description
The rise of Christianity around the world has been the impetus for much religious and social change. The interconnectivity of religious centers has resulted in theological dialogue and innovation. The subversion of long-held categories of culture, gender, race, spirituality, theology, and politics has naturally occurred along with the transgressing of borders and boundaries. Yet at the same time, there has been occasion for healing through intercultural experiences of forgiveness, peacemaking, and reconciliation. Stimulated by the work and mentorship of Joel Carpenter, who has done much to expand the study of world Christianity less through focusing on his own research and writing, and more through amplifying the voices of others, the international contributors to this volume from all six continents promote a deeper understanding of World Christianity through the exploration of such related themes. Whether discussing primal spirituality in northeast India, white supremacy in South Africa, evangelical women and civic engagement in Kenya, or Calvinism in Mexico, the contributors draw upon ethnographic case studies to more deeply understand interconnectivity, subversion, and healing in World Christianity. Their essays provoke a reorientation of Christian thought within the study of World Christianity, enriching the current discourse and promoting vistas for further interdisciplinary studies.
Publisher: Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN: 1350333417
Category : Religion
Languages : en
Pages : 227
Book Description
The rise of Christianity around the world has been the impetus for much religious and social change. The interconnectivity of religious centers has resulted in theological dialogue and innovation. The subversion of long-held categories of culture, gender, race, spirituality, theology, and politics has naturally occurred along with the transgressing of borders and boundaries. Yet at the same time, there has been occasion for healing through intercultural experiences of forgiveness, peacemaking, and reconciliation. Stimulated by the work and mentorship of Joel Carpenter, who has done much to expand the study of world Christianity less through focusing on his own research and writing, and more through amplifying the voices of others, the international contributors to this volume from all six continents promote a deeper understanding of World Christianity through the exploration of such related themes. Whether discussing primal spirituality in northeast India, white supremacy in South Africa, evangelical women and civic engagement in Kenya, or Calvinism in Mexico, the contributors draw upon ethnographic case studies to more deeply understand interconnectivity, subversion, and healing in World Christianity. Their essays provoke a reorientation of Christian thought within the study of World Christianity, enriching the current discourse and promoting vistas for further interdisciplinary studies.
The Routledge Handbook of Transformative Global Studies
Author: S. A. Hamed Hosseini
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 0429893388
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 611
Book Description
The Routledge Handbook of Transformative Global Studies provides diverse and cutting-edge perspectives on this fast-changing field. For 30 years the world has been caught in a long ‘global interregnum,’ plunging from one crisis to the next and witnessing the emergence of new, vibrant, multiple, and sometimes contradictory forms of popular resistance and politics. This global ‘interregnum’ – or a period of uncertainty where the old hegemony is fading and the new ones have not yet been fully realized – necessitates critical self-reflection, brave intellectual speculation and (un)learning of perceived wisdoms, and greater transdisciplinary collaboration across theories, localities, and subjects. This Handbook takes up this challenge by developing fresh perspectives on globalization, development, neoliberalism, capitalism, and their progressive alternatives, addressing issues of democracy, power, inequality, insecurity, precarity, wellbeing, education, displacement, social movements, violence and war, and climate change. Throughout, it emphasizes the dynamics for system change, including bringing post-capitalist, feminist, (de)colonial, and other critical perspectives to support transformative global praxis. This volume brings together a mixture of fresh and established scholars from across disciplines and from a range of both Northern and Southern contexts. Researchers and students from around the world and across the fields of politics, sociology, international development, international relations, geography, economics, area studies, and philosophy will find this an invaluable and fresh guide to global studies in the 21st century.
Publisher: Routledge
ISBN: 0429893388
Category : Political Science
Languages : en
Pages : 611
Book Description
The Routledge Handbook of Transformative Global Studies provides diverse and cutting-edge perspectives on this fast-changing field. For 30 years the world has been caught in a long ‘global interregnum,’ plunging from one crisis to the next and witnessing the emergence of new, vibrant, multiple, and sometimes contradictory forms of popular resistance and politics. This global ‘interregnum’ – or a period of uncertainty where the old hegemony is fading and the new ones have not yet been fully realized – necessitates critical self-reflection, brave intellectual speculation and (un)learning of perceived wisdoms, and greater transdisciplinary collaboration across theories, localities, and subjects. This Handbook takes up this challenge by developing fresh perspectives on globalization, development, neoliberalism, capitalism, and their progressive alternatives, addressing issues of democracy, power, inequality, insecurity, precarity, wellbeing, education, displacement, social movements, violence and war, and climate change. Throughout, it emphasizes the dynamics for system change, including bringing post-capitalist, feminist, (de)colonial, and other critical perspectives to support transformative global praxis. This volume brings together a mixture of fresh and established scholars from across disciplines and from a range of both Northern and Southern contexts. Researchers and students from around the world and across the fields of politics, sociology, international development, international relations, geography, economics, area studies, and philosophy will find this an invaluable and fresh guide to global studies in the 21st century.