Author: Conor McNamara
Publisher: Merrion Press
ISBN: 1788550803
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 287
Book Description
This landmark new study of the life of Republican leader Liam Mellows gathers letters, speeches, articles and IRA documents from archives in Ireland, the UK and the United States together for the first time to form an insightful analysis of Mellows’ short but dramatic life. It examines his beliefs, fraught personal relationships, political betrayals and intrigue, and his struggle in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds. Mellows was at the forefront of the Republican movement from its inception. After the Easter Rebellion, he spent four years as the representative of the IRA in the United States, but his time there was deeply unhappy: jailed in the infamous Tombs Prison while his comrades dithered over his bail, he was also branded an informer by the Mayor of New York. Back in Ireland in 1920, Mellows was responsible for buying and distributing arms during the War of Independence. Bitterly opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he was a key opponent of Michael Collins, and his role in occupying the Four Courts in June 1922 was central to the outbreak of the Civil War. His execution by the Free State in December 1922 was one of the most divisive moments in the foundation of the state, and he remains an enigmatic icon for Irish republicans to this day.
Liam Mellows
Author: Conor McNamara
Publisher: Merrion Press
ISBN: 1788550803
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 287
Book Description
This landmark new study of the life of Republican leader Liam Mellows gathers letters, speeches, articles and IRA documents from archives in Ireland, the UK and the United States together for the first time to form an insightful analysis of Mellows’ short but dramatic life. It examines his beliefs, fraught personal relationships, political betrayals and intrigue, and his struggle in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds. Mellows was at the forefront of the Republican movement from its inception. After the Easter Rebellion, he spent four years as the representative of the IRA in the United States, but his time there was deeply unhappy: jailed in the infamous Tombs Prison while his comrades dithered over his bail, he was also branded an informer by the Mayor of New York. Back in Ireland in 1920, Mellows was responsible for buying and distributing arms during the War of Independence. Bitterly opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he was a key opponent of Michael Collins, and his role in occupying the Four Courts in June 1922 was central to the outbreak of the Civil War. His execution by the Free State in December 1922 was one of the most divisive moments in the foundation of the state, and he remains an enigmatic icon for Irish republicans to this day.
Publisher: Merrion Press
ISBN: 1788550803
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 287
Book Description
This landmark new study of the life of Republican leader Liam Mellows gathers letters, speeches, articles and IRA documents from archives in Ireland, the UK and the United States together for the first time to form an insightful analysis of Mellows’ short but dramatic life. It examines his beliefs, fraught personal relationships, political betrayals and intrigue, and his struggle in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds. Mellows was at the forefront of the Republican movement from its inception. After the Easter Rebellion, he spent four years as the representative of the IRA in the United States, but his time there was deeply unhappy: jailed in the infamous Tombs Prison while his comrades dithered over his bail, he was also branded an informer by the Mayor of New York. Back in Ireland in 1920, Mellows was responsible for buying and distributing arms during the War of Independence. Bitterly opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he was a key opponent of Michael Collins, and his role in occupying the Four Courts in June 1922 was central to the outbreak of the Civil War. His execution by the Free State in December 1922 was one of the most divisive moments in the foundation of the state, and he remains an enigmatic icon for Irish republicans to this day.
Liam Mellows, Soldier of the Irish Republic
Author: Conor McNamara
Publisher:
ISBN: 9781788550789
Category : Biography & Autobiography
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
This landmark study of the life of republican leader Liam Mellows brings together letters, speeches, political writings and captured IRA documents to explore his short but dramatic life. Mellows was at the forefront of the republican movement in Ireland from its inception. Following the Easter Rising, he spent four years as the IRA's representative in New York, attempted to import arms into Ireland, was jailed, and - worst of all - branded an informer by the Mayor of New York. Arriving back in Ireland in 1920, Mellows was responsible for the importation of arms for the republican forces during the Independence struggle. Bitterly opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he became an implacable opponent of Michael Collins, and his role in helping form the anti-Treaty IRA in 1922 contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. Mellows' execution in December 1922 was among the most divisive acts of the new Irish state, and he remains an enigmatic icon for Irish republicans. Liam Mellows, Soldier of the Irish Republic, examines his beliefs, his fraught personal relationships and political betrayals, and sheds new light on his struggle in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds.
Publisher:
ISBN: 9781788550789
Category : Biography & Autobiography
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
This landmark study of the life of republican leader Liam Mellows brings together letters, speeches, political writings and captured IRA documents to explore his short but dramatic life. Mellows was at the forefront of the republican movement in Ireland from its inception. Following the Easter Rising, he spent four years as the IRA's representative in New York, attempted to import arms into Ireland, was jailed, and - worst of all - branded an informer by the Mayor of New York. Arriving back in Ireland in 1920, Mellows was responsible for the importation of arms for the republican forces during the Independence struggle. Bitterly opposed to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he became an implacable opponent of Michael Collins, and his role in helping form the anti-Treaty IRA in 1922 contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. Mellows' execution in December 1922 was among the most divisive acts of the new Irish state, and he remains an enigmatic icon for Irish republicans. Liam Mellows, Soldier of the Irish Republic, examines his beliefs, his fraught personal relationships and political betrayals, and sheds new light on his struggle in the face of seemingly overwhelming odds.
Liam Mellows and the Irish Revolution
Author: C. Desmond Greaves
Publisher: Lawrence & Wishart
ISBN: 9781905007011
Category : Biography & Autobiography
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
This new edition is introduced by Sinn Fein president Gerry Adams. Mellows was one of the most radical and intellectually questioning of the 1916-1922 political leaders. No other man so perfectly combines the realism and romance of the Irish struggle. This volume is considered by many to be the definitive biography of Mellows. It is a standard source for the period of Modern Irish History it covers - 1916-1922, when Ireland was partitioned. For Adams, and many others, it is particularly important because of the insight it provides into the social and class politics which underpinned the Republican split on the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty. The book's concentration on the nationalist aspect of the Revolution makes this reissue particularly timely.
Publisher: Lawrence & Wishart
ISBN: 9781905007011
Category : Biography & Autobiography
Languages : en
Pages : 0
Book Description
This new edition is introduced by Sinn Fein president Gerry Adams. Mellows was one of the most radical and intellectually questioning of the 1916-1922 political leaders. No other man so perfectly combines the realism and romance of the Irish struggle. This volume is considered by many to be the definitive biography of Mellows. It is a standard source for the period of Modern Irish History it covers - 1916-1922, when Ireland was partitioned. For Adams, and many others, it is particularly important because of the insight it provides into the social and class politics which underpinned the Republican split on the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty. The book's concentration on the nationalist aspect of the Revolution makes this reissue particularly timely.
Pathway to Rebellion:
Author: William Henry
Publisher: Mercier Press Ltd
ISBN: 1781174040
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 268
Book Description
In 'Pathway to Rebellion' Willie Henry traces the origins of the rebellion of 1916 in Co. Galway back over a century. He argues that the country's rebellious past encouraged the Galway Volunteers to take a stand during the Rising, when many other parts of the country failed to do so. While Galway's people did not make the same blood sacrifice as Dublin, they were not lacking in courage. Many of the men were without arms, while others only had pikes. Nevertheless, they were prepared to fight, although aware that their rebellious actions could mean death in battle or before a firing squad. Despite this they stood by their convictions and showed unquestionable commitment to the idea of a free Ireland. Following the Rising those who were captured were assaulted, subjected to verbal abuse by the public and their captors, and condemned to imprisonment. Some managed to evade capture, but were forced to go on the run. However, in the aftermath of the leaders' executions, public opinion changed dramatically and the traitors of yesterday were suddenly the heroes of today. The homecoming of those who were imprisoned was in total contrast to their departure. The entire story of Galway in 1916 is in this book, making it the definitive story of the rebellion in the west.
Publisher: Mercier Press Ltd
ISBN: 1781174040
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 268
Book Description
In 'Pathway to Rebellion' Willie Henry traces the origins of the rebellion of 1916 in Co. Galway back over a century. He argues that the country's rebellious past encouraged the Galway Volunteers to take a stand during the Rising, when many other parts of the country failed to do so. While Galway's people did not make the same blood sacrifice as Dublin, they were not lacking in courage. Many of the men were without arms, while others only had pikes. Nevertheless, they were prepared to fight, although aware that their rebellious actions could mean death in battle or before a firing squad. Despite this they stood by their convictions and showed unquestionable commitment to the idea of a free Ireland. Following the Rising those who were captured were assaulted, subjected to verbal abuse by the public and their captors, and condemned to imprisonment. Some managed to evade capture, but were forced to go on the run. However, in the aftermath of the leaders' executions, public opinion changed dramatically and the traitors of yesterday were suddenly the heroes of today. The homecoming of those who were imprisoned was in total contrast to their departure. The entire story of Galway in 1916 is in this book, making it the definitive story of the rebellion in the west.
Irish Nationalists and the Making of the Irish Race
Author: Bruce Nelson
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 0691161968
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 349
Book Description
This is a book about Irish nationalism and how Irish nationalists developed their own conception of the Irish race. Bruce Nelson begins with an exploration of the discourse of race--from the nineteenth--century belief that "race is everything" to the more recent argument that there are no races. He focuses on how English observers constructed the "native" and Catholic Irish as uncivilized and savage, and on the racialization of the Irish in the nineteenth century, especially in Britain and the United States, where Irish immigrants were often portrayed in terms that had been applied mainly to enslaved Africans and their descendants. Most of the book focuses on how the Irish created their own identity--in the context of slavery and abolition, empire, and revolution. Since the Irish were a dispersed people, this process unfolded not only in Ireland, but in the United States, Britain, Australia, South Africa, and other countries. Many nationalists were determined to repudiate anything that could interfere with the goal of building a united movement aimed at achieving full independence for Ireland. But others, including men and women who are at the heart of this study, believed that the Irish struggle must create a more inclusive sense of Irish nationhood and stand for freedom everywhere. Nelson pays close attention to this argument within Irish nationalism, and to the ways it resonated with nationalists worldwide, from India to the Caribbean.
Publisher: Princeton University Press
ISBN: 0691161968
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 349
Book Description
This is a book about Irish nationalism and how Irish nationalists developed their own conception of the Irish race. Bruce Nelson begins with an exploration of the discourse of race--from the nineteenth--century belief that "race is everything" to the more recent argument that there are no races. He focuses on how English observers constructed the "native" and Catholic Irish as uncivilized and savage, and on the racialization of the Irish in the nineteenth century, especially in Britain and the United States, where Irish immigrants were often portrayed in terms that had been applied mainly to enslaved Africans and their descendants. Most of the book focuses on how the Irish created their own identity--in the context of slavery and abolition, empire, and revolution. Since the Irish were a dispersed people, this process unfolded not only in Ireland, but in the United States, Britain, Australia, South Africa, and other countries. Many nationalists were determined to repudiate anything that could interfere with the goal of building a united movement aimed at achieving full independence for Ireland. But others, including men and women who are at the heart of this study, believed that the Irish struggle must create a more inclusive sense of Irish nationhood and stand for freedom everywhere. Nelson pays close attention to this argument within Irish nationalism, and to the ways it resonated with nationalists worldwide, from India to the Caribbean.
The Fenian Ideal and Irish Nationalism, 1882-1916
Author: M. J. Kelly
Publisher: Boydell & Brewer Ltd
ISBN: 1843832046
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 298
Book Description
Demonstrates that separatist thinking in Ireland was crucial even when the political focus was on home rule. This book analyses Fenian influences on Irish nationalism between the Phoenix Park murders of 1882 and the Easter Rising of 1916. It challenges the convention that Irish separatist politics before the First World War were marginaland irrelevant, showing instead that clear boundaries between home rule and separatist nationalism did not exist. Kelly examines how leading home rule MPs argued that Parnellism was Fenianism by other means, and how Fenian politics were influenced by Irish cultural nationalism, which reinforced separatist orthodoxies, serving to clarify the ideological distance between Fenians and home rulers. It discusses how early Sinn Fein gave voice to these new orthodoxies, and concludes by examining the ideological complexities of the Irish Volunteers, and exploring Irish politics between 1914 and 1916. Dr MATTHEW KELLY is British Academy Research Fellow and Lecturer in Modern British History at Hertford College, University of Oxford.
Publisher: Boydell & Brewer Ltd
ISBN: 1843832046
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 298
Book Description
Demonstrates that separatist thinking in Ireland was crucial even when the political focus was on home rule. This book analyses Fenian influences on Irish nationalism between the Phoenix Park murders of 1882 and the Easter Rising of 1916. It challenges the convention that Irish separatist politics before the First World War were marginaland irrelevant, showing instead that clear boundaries between home rule and separatist nationalism did not exist. Kelly examines how leading home rule MPs argued that Parnellism was Fenianism by other means, and how Fenian politics were influenced by Irish cultural nationalism, which reinforced separatist orthodoxies, serving to clarify the ideological distance between Fenians and home rulers. It discusses how early Sinn Fein gave voice to these new orthodoxies, and concludes by examining the ideological complexities of the Irish Volunteers, and exploring Irish politics between 1914 and 1916. Dr MATTHEW KELLY is British Academy Research Fellow and Lecturer in Modern British History at Hertford College, University of Oxford.
The Gates Flew Open
Author: Peadar O'Donnell
Publisher: Mercier Press Ltd
ISBN: 1781172250
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 148
Book Description
Peadar O'Donnell became involved in Irish Republicanism through his initial involvement in socialism, as an organiser for the ITGWU. When he was unsuccessful in establishing a branch of the Irish Citizen Army in Derry he joined the IRA and led Guerilla activities in Donegal and Derry during the War of Independence. He was firmly opposed to the treaty signed at the end of the war and wrote 'The middle class was getting all they wanted, namely the transfer of patronage from Dublin Castle to the Irish parliament. The mere control of patronage did not seem to me sufficient reason for the struggle we had been through.' He was a member of the executive of the anti-treaty IRA, and was in the Four Courts when it was attacked by the Free State forces. He was arrested shortly afterwards and was involved in organising a hunger strike among the anti-treaty Republicans which lasted 41 days. It was while in prison that he began writing 'to escape the bare walls of the prison cell' and this is a story of prison life in the midst of Civil War in Ireland that combines glimpses of humour with moments of tragic poignancy as he describes games of handball and bridge with men who faced the firing squad withing twenty-four hours. O'Donnell was one of the last survivors of the Independece struggle in Ireland, retaining his radicalism and idealism right up to his death in 1986 at the age of 93.
Publisher: Mercier Press Ltd
ISBN: 1781172250
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 148
Book Description
Peadar O'Donnell became involved in Irish Republicanism through his initial involvement in socialism, as an organiser for the ITGWU. When he was unsuccessful in establishing a branch of the Irish Citizen Army in Derry he joined the IRA and led Guerilla activities in Donegal and Derry during the War of Independence. He was firmly opposed to the treaty signed at the end of the war and wrote 'The middle class was getting all they wanted, namely the transfer of patronage from Dublin Castle to the Irish parliament. The mere control of patronage did not seem to me sufficient reason for the struggle we had been through.' He was a member of the executive of the anti-treaty IRA, and was in the Four Courts when it was attacked by the Free State forces. He was arrested shortly afterwards and was involved in organising a hunger strike among the anti-treaty Republicans which lasted 41 days. It was while in prison that he began writing 'to escape the bare walls of the prison cell' and this is a story of prison life in the midst of Civil War in Ireland that combines glimpses of humour with moments of tragic poignancy as he describes games of handball and bridge with men who faced the firing squad withing twenty-four hours. O'Donnell was one of the last survivors of the Independece struggle in Ireland, retaining his radicalism and idealism right up to his death in 1986 at the age of 93.
Ernie O'Malley
Author: Richard English
Publisher: Clarendon Press
ISBN: 0191518670
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 288
Book Description
Ernie O'Malley (1897-1957) was one of the most talented and colourful of modern Irish republicans. An important IRA leader in the 1916-1923 Irish Revolution, this bookish gunman subsequently became a distinguished intellectual, and the author of two classic autobiographical accounts of the revolutionary period: On Another Man's Wound and The Singing Flame. His post-revolutionary life took on a bohemian flavour. Travelling extensively in Europe and America, he mixed with a wide range of artistic and literary figures, and devoted himself to a variety of writing projects. In his IRA career he mixed with revolutionaries such as Michael Collins and Eamon de Valera; in his post-IRA years his friends included Samuel Beckett, Louis MacNeice, John Wayne, and John Ford. This important new thematic biography draws on previously unseen archival sources, and introduces O'Malley to both scholarly and general readers. O'Malley's post-revolutionary life was as turbulent as his IRA years, and illuminates many persistent themes of Irish history, ranging from the origins and culture of militant republicanism and the complexities of Anglo-Irish relations to the development of intellectual and artistic life in twentieth-century Ireland. This exciting new biography will be essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the background to modern Irish politics and the past and present role of the IRA.
Publisher: Clarendon Press
ISBN: 0191518670
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 288
Book Description
Ernie O'Malley (1897-1957) was one of the most talented and colourful of modern Irish republicans. An important IRA leader in the 1916-1923 Irish Revolution, this bookish gunman subsequently became a distinguished intellectual, and the author of two classic autobiographical accounts of the revolutionary period: On Another Man's Wound and The Singing Flame. His post-revolutionary life took on a bohemian flavour. Travelling extensively in Europe and America, he mixed with a wide range of artistic and literary figures, and devoted himself to a variety of writing projects. In his IRA career he mixed with revolutionaries such as Michael Collins and Eamon de Valera; in his post-IRA years his friends included Samuel Beckett, Louis MacNeice, John Wayne, and John Ford. This important new thematic biography draws on previously unseen archival sources, and introduces O'Malley to both scholarly and general readers. O'Malley's post-revolutionary life was as turbulent as his IRA years, and illuminates many persistent themes of Irish history, ranging from the origins and culture of militant republicanism and the complexities of Anglo-Irish relations to the development of intellectual and artistic life in twentieth-century Ireland. This exciting new biography will be essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the background to modern Irish politics and the past and present role of the IRA.
For the Life of Me
Author: Robert Briscoe
Publisher: Pickle Partners Publishing
ISBN: 1787208729
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 495
Book Description
The adventurous autobiography of Robert Briscoe, the Irish Rebel who became the first Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin. First published in 1958, in this remarkable book the Lord Mayor of Dublin recounts his experiences as a young man during the Irish uprisings and later on in helping persecuted Jews escape to Israel, where he also took part in training of guerrilla leaders. “Robert Briscoe’s FOR THE LIFE OF ME is a wonderful, warm, often humorous, always compassionate autobiography, a tale of many adventures, a history of 20th century Irish politics, and account of Zionism and the founding of Israel, and above all the fascinating story of a complex yet wholly human lovable man and his family.”—Boston Herald “There are so many unusual factors in this book—elements of courage, devotion, religion—that the colorful former Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin emerges even more picturesque out of the pages of his own book after his story is completed. What makes the Briscoe story all the more valuable is the sense of humor displayed in the frank narrative of this remarkable man.”—Detroit Jewish News “Mayor Briscoe’s book can be read as an exciting, human story of adventure or as a portrait of a man who always went all-out for his loyalties, or a study in violence and what comes of it. Whatever the reader’s bent, he won’t find a boring line.”—New York Herald Tribune “FOR THE LIFE OF ME is a book in which a most unusual man tells about his most unusual activities. Rich in thrilling adventure, it is also bright with humor, and warm with the story of a truly happy family life.”—Chicago Tribune
Publisher: Pickle Partners Publishing
ISBN: 1787208729
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 495
Book Description
The adventurous autobiography of Robert Briscoe, the Irish Rebel who became the first Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin. First published in 1958, in this remarkable book the Lord Mayor of Dublin recounts his experiences as a young man during the Irish uprisings and later on in helping persecuted Jews escape to Israel, where he also took part in training of guerrilla leaders. “Robert Briscoe’s FOR THE LIFE OF ME is a wonderful, warm, often humorous, always compassionate autobiography, a tale of many adventures, a history of 20th century Irish politics, and account of Zionism and the founding of Israel, and above all the fascinating story of a complex yet wholly human lovable man and his family.”—Boston Herald “There are so many unusual factors in this book—elements of courage, devotion, religion—that the colorful former Jewish Lord Mayor of Dublin emerges even more picturesque out of the pages of his own book after his story is completed. What makes the Briscoe story all the more valuable is the sense of humor displayed in the frank narrative of this remarkable man.”—Detroit Jewish News “Mayor Briscoe’s book can be read as an exciting, human story of adventure or as a portrait of a man who always went all-out for his loyalties, or a study in violence and what comes of it. Whatever the reader’s bent, he won’t find a boring line.”—New York Herald Tribune “FOR THE LIFE OF ME is a book in which a most unusual man tells about his most unusual activities. Rich in thrilling adventure, it is also bright with humor, and warm with the story of a truly happy family life.”—Chicago Tribune
Ireland and the British Empire
Author: Kevin Kenny
Publisher: OUP Oxford
ISBN: 0191530786
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 320
Book Description
Modern Irish history was determined by the rise, expansion, and decline of the British Empire. British imperial history, from the age of Atlantic expansion to the age of decolonization, was moulded in part by Irish experience. But the nature of Ireland's position in the Empire has always been a matter of contentious dispute. Was Ireland a sister kingdom and equal partner in a larger British state? Or was it, because of its proximity and strategic importance, the Empire's most subjugated colony? Contemporaries disagreed strongly on these questions, and historians continue to do so. Questions of this sort can only be answered historically: Ireland's relationship with Britain and the Empire developed and changed over time, as did the Empire itself. This book offers the first comprehensive history of the subject from the early modern era through to the contemporary period. The contributors seek to specify the nature of Ireland's entanglement with empire over time: from the conquest and colonization of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, through the consolidation of Ascendancy rule in the eighteenth, the Act of Union in the period 1801-1921, the emergence of an Irish Free State and Republic, and eventual withdrawal from the British Commonwealth in 1948. They also consider the participation of Irish people in the Empire overseas, as soldiers, administrators, merchants, migrants, and missionaries; the influence of Irish social, administrative, and constitutional precedents in other colonies; and the impact of Irish nationalism and independence on the Empire at large. The result is a new interpretation of Irish history in its wider imperial context which is also filled with insights on the origins, expansion, and decline of the British Empire.
Publisher: OUP Oxford
ISBN: 0191530786
Category : History
Languages : en
Pages : 320
Book Description
Modern Irish history was determined by the rise, expansion, and decline of the British Empire. British imperial history, from the age of Atlantic expansion to the age of decolonization, was moulded in part by Irish experience. But the nature of Ireland's position in the Empire has always been a matter of contentious dispute. Was Ireland a sister kingdom and equal partner in a larger British state? Or was it, because of its proximity and strategic importance, the Empire's most subjugated colony? Contemporaries disagreed strongly on these questions, and historians continue to do so. Questions of this sort can only be answered historically: Ireland's relationship with Britain and the Empire developed and changed over time, as did the Empire itself. This book offers the first comprehensive history of the subject from the early modern era through to the contemporary period. The contributors seek to specify the nature of Ireland's entanglement with empire over time: from the conquest and colonization of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, through the consolidation of Ascendancy rule in the eighteenth, the Act of Union in the period 1801-1921, the emergence of an Irish Free State and Republic, and eventual withdrawal from the British Commonwealth in 1948. They also consider the participation of Irish people in the Empire overseas, as soldiers, administrators, merchants, migrants, and missionaries; the influence of Irish social, administrative, and constitutional precedents in other colonies; and the impact of Irish nationalism and independence on the Empire at large. The result is a new interpretation of Irish history in its wider imperial context which is also filled with insights on the origins, expansion, and decline of the British Empire.