Author: Dennis B. Malpass
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118031792
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 150
Book Description
Demystifies the largest volume manmade synthetic polymer by distillingthe fundamentals of what polyethylene is, how it's made and processed,and what happens to it after its useful life is over. Endorsement for Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene "I found this to be a straightforward, easy-to-read, and useful introductory text on polyethylene, which will be helpful for chemists, engineers, and students who need to learn more about this complex topic. The author is a senior polyethylene specialist and I believe we can all benefit from his distillation of knowledge and insight to quickly grasp the key learnings." —R.E. King III; Ciba Corporation (part of the BASF group) Jargon used in industrial polyethylene technology can often be bewildering to newcomers. Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene educates readers on terminology commonly used in the industry and demystifies the chemistry of catalysts and cocatalysts employed in the manufacture of polyethylene. This concise primer reviews the history of polyethylene and introduces basic features and nomenclatures for this versatile polymer. Catalysts and cocatalysts crucial to the production of polyethylene are discussed in the first few chapters. Latter chapters provide an introduction to the processes used to manufacture polyethylene and discuss matters related to downstream applications of polyethylene such as rheology, additives, environmental issues, etc. Providing industrial chemists and engineers a valuable reference tool that covers fundamental features of polyethylene technology, Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene: Identifies the fundamental types of polyethylene and how they differ. Lists markets, key fabrication methods, and the major producers of polyethylene. Provides biodegradable alternatives to polyethylene. Describes the processes used in the manufacture of polyethylene. Includes a thorough glossary, providing definitions of acronyms and abbreviations and also defines terms commonly used in discussions of production and properties of polyethylene. Concludes with the future of industrial polyethylene.
Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene
Author: Dennis B. Malpass
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118031792
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 150
Book Description
Demystifies the largest volume manmade synthetic polymer by distillingthe fundamentals of what polyethylene is, how it's made and processed,and what happens to it after its useful life is over. Endorsement for Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene "I found this to be a straightforward, easy-to-read, and useful introductory text on polyethylene, which will be helpful for chemists, engineers, and students who need to learn more about this complex topic. The author is a senior polyethylene specialist and I believe we can all benefit from his distillation of knowledge and insight to quickly grasp the key learnings." —R.E. King III; Ciba Corporation (part of the BASF group) Jargon used in industrial polyethylene technology can often be bewildering to newcomers. Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene educates readers on terminology commonly used in the industry and demystifies the chemistry of catalysts and cocatalysts employed in the manufacture of polyethylene. This concise primer reviews the history of polyethylene and introduces basic features and nomenclatures for this versatile polymer. Catalysts and cocatalysts crucial to the production of polyethylene are discussed in the first few chapters. Latter chapters provide an introduction to the processes used to manufacture polyethylene and discuss matters related to downstream applications of polyethylene such as rheology, additives, environmental issues, etc. Providing industrial chemists and engineers a valuable reference tool that covers fundamental features of polyethylene technology, Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene: Identifies the fundamental types of polyethylene and how they differ. Lists markets, key fabrication methods, and the major producers of polyethylene. Provides biodegradable alternatives to polyethylene. Describes the processes used in the manufacture of polyethylene. Includes a thorough glossary, providing definitions of acronyms and abbreviations and also defines terms commonly used in discussions of production and properties of polyethylene. Concludes with the future of industrial polyethylene.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1118031792
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 150
Book Description
Demystifies the largest volume manmade synthetic polymer by distillingthe fundamentals of what polyethylene is, how it's made and processed,and what happens to it after its useful life is over. Endorsement for Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene "I found this to be a straightforward, easy-to-read, and useful introductory text on polyethylene, which will be helpful for chemists, engineers, and students who need to learn more about this complex topic. The author is a senior polyethylene specialist and I believe we can all benefit from his distillation of knowledge and insight to quickly grasp the key learnings." —R.E. King III; Ciba Corporation (part of the BASF group) Jargon used in industrial polyethylene technology can often be bewildering to newcomers. Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene educates readers on terminology commonly used in the industry and demystifies the chemistry of catalysts and cocatalysts employed in the manufacture of polyethylene. This concise primer reviews the history of polyethylene and introduces basic features and nomenclatures for this versatile polymer. Catalysts and cocatalysts crucial to the production of polyethylene are discussed in the first few chapters. Latter chapters provide an introduction to the processes used to manufacture polyethylene and discuss matters related to downstream applications of polyethylene such as rheology, additives, environmental issues, etc. Providing industrial chemists and engineers a valuable reference tool that covers fundamental features of polyethylene technology, Introduction to Industrial Polyethylene: Identifies the fundamental types of polyethylene and how they differ. Lists markets, key fabrication methods, and the major producers of polyethylene. Provides biodegradable alternatives to polyethylene. Describes the processes used in the manufacture of polyethylene. Includes a thorough glossary, providing definitions of acronyms and abbreviations and also defines terms commonly used in discussions of production and properties of polyethylene. Concludes with the future of industrial polyethylene.
Introduction to Industrial Polypropylene
Author: Dennis B. Malpass
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 111846320X
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 290
Book Description
This introductory text is an important resource for new engineers, chemists, students, and chemical industry personnel to understand the technical aspects of polypropylene which is the 2nd largest synthetics polymer in manufactured output. The book considers the following topics: What are the principal types of polypropylene and how do they differ? What catalysts are used to produce polypropylene and how do they function? What is the role of cocatalysts and how have they evolved over the years? How are industrial polypropylene catalysts tested and the resultant polymer evaluated? What processes are used in the manufacture of polypropylene? What are the biopolymer alternatives to polypropylene? What companies are the major industrial manufacturers of polypropylene? What is the environmental fate of polypropylene?
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 111846320X
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 290
Book Description
This introductory text is an important resource for new engineers, chemists, students, and chemical industry personnel to understand the technical aspects of polypropylene which is the 2nd largest synthetics polymer in manufactured output. The book considers the following topics: What are the principal types of polypropylene and how do they differ? What catalysts are used to produce polypropylene and how do they function? What is the role of cocatalysts and how have they evolved over the years? How are industrial polypropylene catalysts tested and the resultant polymer evaluated? What processes are used in the manufacture of polypropylene? What are the biopolymer alternatives to polypropylene? What companies are the major industrial manufacturers of polypropylene? What is the environmental fate of polypropylene?
Handbook of Industrial Polyethylene and Technology
Author: Mark A. Spalding
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119159776
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1671
Book Description
This handbook provides an exhaustive description of polyethylene. The 50+ chapters are written by some of the most experienced and prominent authors in the field, providing a truly unique view of polyethylene. The book starts with a historical discussion on how low density polyethylene was discovered and how it provided unique opportunities in the early days. New catalysts are presented and show how they created an expansion in available products including linear low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, copolymers, and polyethylene produced from metallocene catalysts. With these different catalysts systems a wide range of structures are possible with an equally wide range of physical properties. Numerous types of additives are presented that include additives for the protection of the resin from the environment and processing, fillers, processing aids, anti-fogging agents, pigments, and flame retardants. Common processing methods including extrusion, blown film, cast film, injection molding, and thermoforming are presented along with some of the more specialized processing techniques such as rotational molding, fiber processing, pipe extrusion, reactive extrusion, wire and cable, and foaming processes. The business of polyethylene including markets, world capacity, and future prospects are detailed. This handbook provides the most current and complete technology assessments and business practices for polyethylene resins.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119159776
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1671
Book Description
This handbook provides an exhaustive description of polyethylene. The 50+ chapters are written by some of the most experienced and prominent authors in the field, providing a truly unique view of polyethylene. The book starts with a historical discussion on how low density polyethylene was discovered and how it provided unique opportunities in the early days. New catalysts are presented and show how they created an expansion in available products including linear low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, copolymers, and polyethylene produced from metallocene catalysts. With these different catalysts systems a wide range of structures are possible with an equally wide range of physical properties. Numerous types of additives are presented that include additives for the protection of the resin from the environment and processing, fillers, processing aids, anti-fogging agents, pigments, and flame retardants. Common processing methods including extrusion, blown film, cast film, injection molding, and thermoforming are presented along with some of the more specialized processing techniques such as rotational molding, fiber processing, pipe extrusion, reactive extrusion, wire and cable, and foaming processes. The business of polyethylene including markets, world capacity, and future prospects are detailed. This handbook provides the most current and complete technology assessments and business practices for polyethylene resins.
Brydson's Plastics Materials
Author: Marianne Gilbert
Publisher: William Andrew
ISBN: 0323370225
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 894
Book Description
Brydson's Plastics Materials, Eighth Edition, provides a comprehensive overview of the commercially available plastics materials that bridge the gap between theory and practice. The book enables scientists to understand the commercial implications of their work and provides engineers with essential theory. Since the previous edition, many developments have taken place in plastics materials, such as the growth in the commercial use of sustainable bioplastics, so this book brings the user fully up-to-date with the latest materials, references, units, and figures that have all been thoroughly updated. The book remains the authoritiative resource for engineers, suppliers, researchers, materials scientists, and academics in the field of polymers, including current best practice, processing, and material selection information and health and safety guidance, along with discussions of sustainability and the commercial importance of various plastics and additives, including nanofillers and graphene as property modifiers. With a 50 year history as the principal reference in the field of plastics material, and fully updated by an expert team of polymer scientists and engineers, this book is essential reading for researchers and practitioners in this field. - Presents a one-stop-shop for easily accessible information on plastics materials, now updated to include the latest biopolymers, high temperature engineering plastics, thermoplastic elastomers, and more - Includes thoroughly revised and reorganised material as contributed by an expert team who make the book relevant to all plastics engineers, materials scientists, and students of polymers - Includes the latest guidance on health, safety, and sustainability, including materials safety data sheets, local regulations, and a discussion of recycling issues
Publisher: William Andrew
ISBN: 0323370225
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 894
Book Description
Brydson's Plastics Materials, Eighth Edition, provides a comprehensive overview of the commercially available plastics materials that bridge the gap between theory and practice. The book enables scientists to understand the commercial implications of their work and provides engineers with essential theory. Since the previous edition, many developments have taken place in plastics materials, such as the growth in the commercial use of sustainable bioplastics, so this book brings the user fully up-to-date with the latest materials, references, units, and figures that have all been thoroughly updated. The book remains the authoritiative resource for engineers, suppliers, researchers, materials scientists, and academics in the field of polymers, including current best practice, processing, and material selection information and health and safety guidance, along with discussions of sustainability and the commercial importance of various plastics and additives, including nanofillers and graphene as property modifiers. With a 50 year history as the principal reference in the field of plastics material, and fully updated by an expert team of polymer scientists and engineers, this book is essential reading for researchers and practitioners in this field. - Presents a one-stop-shop for easily accessible information on plastics materials, now updated to include the latest biopolymers, high temperature engineering plastics, thermoplastic elastomers, and more - Includes thoroughly revised and reorganised material as contributed by an expert team who make the book relevant to all plastics engineers, materials scientists, and students of polymers - Includes the latest guidance on health, safety, and sustainability, including materials safety data sheets, local regulations, and a discussion of recycling issues
Introduction to Physical Polymer Science
Author: Leslie H. Sperling
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119103746
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 815
Book Description
An Updated Edition of the Classic Text Polymers constitute the basis for the plastics, rubber, adhesives, fiber, and coating industries. The Fourth Edition of Introduction to Physical Polymer Science acknowledges the industrial success of polymers and the advancements made in the field while continuing to deliver the comprehensive introduction to polymer science that made its predecessors classic texts. The Fourth Edition continues its coverage of amorphous and crystalline materials, glass transitions, rubber elasticity, and mechanical behavior, and offers updated discussions of polymer blends, composites, and interfaces, as well as such basics as molecular weight determination. Thus, interrelationships among molecular structure, morphology, and mechanical behavior of polymers continue to provide much of the value of the book. Newly introduced topics include: Nanocomposites, including carbon nanotubes and exfoliated montmorillonite clays The structure, motions, and functions of DNA and proteins, as well as the interfaces of polymeric biomaterials with living organisms The glass transition behavior of nano-thin plastic films In addition, new sections have been included on fire retardancy, friction and wear, optical tweezers, and more. Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Fourth Edition provides both an essential introduction to the field as well as an entry point to the latest research and developments in polymer science and engineering, making it an indispensable text for chemistry, chemical engineering, materials science and engineering, and polymer science and engineering students and professionals.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119103746
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 815
Book Description
An Updated Edition of the Classic Text Polymers constitute the basis for the plastics, rubber, adhesives, fiber, and coating industries. The Fourth Edition of Introduction to Physical Polymer Science acknowledges the industrial success of polymers and the advancements made in the field while continuing to deliver the comprehensive introduction to polymer science that made its predecessors classic texts. The Fourth Edition continues its coverage of amorphous and crystalline materials, glass transitions, rubber elasticity, and mechanical behavior, and offers updated discussions of polymer blends, composites, and interfaces, as well as such basics as molecular weight determination. Thus, interrelationships among molecular structure, morphology, and mechanical behavior of polymers continue to provide much of the value of the book. Newly introduced topics include: Nanocomposites, including carbon nanotubes and exfoliated montmorillonite clays The structure, motions, and functions of DNA and proteins, as well as the interfaces of polymeric biomaterials with living organisms The glass transition behavior of nano-thin plastic films In addition, new sections have been included on fire retardancy, friction and wear, optical tweezers, and more. Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Fourth Edition provides both an essential introduction to the field as well as an entry point to the latest research and developments in polymer science and engineering, making it an indispensable text for chemistry, chemical engineering, materials science and engineering, and polymer science and engineering students and professionals.
Introduction to Plastics Engineering
Author: Vijay K. Stokes
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119536529
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1749
Book Description
The authoritative introduction to all aspects of plastics engineering — offering both academic and industry perspectives in one complete volume. Introduction to Plastics Engineering provides a self-contained introduction to plastics engineering. A unique synergistic approach explores all aspects of material use — concepts, mechanics, materials, part design, part fabrication, and assembly — required for converting plastic materials, mainly in the form of small pellets, into useful products. Thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, and advanced composites, the four disparate application areas of polymers normally treated as separate subjects, are covered together. Divided into five parts — Concepts, Mechanics, Materials, Part Processing and Assembly, and Material Systems — this inclusive volume enables readers to gain a well-rounded, foundational knowledge of plastics engineering. Chapters cover topics including the structure of polymers, how concepts from polymer physics explain the macro behavior of plastics, evolving concepts for plastics use, simple mechanics principles and their role in plastics engineering, models for the behavior of solids and fluids, and the mechanisms underlying the stiffening of plastics by embedded fibers. Drawing from his over fifty years in both academia and industry, Author Vijay Stokes uses the synergy between fundamentals and applications to provide a more meaningful introduction to plastics. Examines every facet of plastics engineering from materials and fabrication methods to advanced composites Provides accurate, up-to-date information for students and engineers both new to plastics and highly experienced with them Offers a practical guide to large number of materials and their applications Addresses current issues for mechanical design, part performance, and part fabrication Introduction to Plastics Engineering is an ideal text for practicing engineers, researchers, and students in mechanical and plastics engineering and related industries.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119536529
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1749
Book Description
The authoritative introduction to all aspects of plastics engineering — offering both academic and industry perspectives in one complete volume. Introduction to Plastics Engineering provides a self-contained introduction to plastics engineering. A unique synergistic approach explores all aspects of material use — concepts, mechanics, materials, part design, part fabrication, and assembly — required for converting plastic materials, mainly in the form of small pellets, into useful products. Thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, and advanced composites, the four disparate application areas of polymers normally treated as separate subjects, are covered together. Divided into five parts — Concepts, Mechanics, Materials, Part Processing and Assembly, and Material Systems — this inclusive volume enables readers to gain a well-rounded, foundational knowledge of plastics engineering. Chapters cover topics including the structure of polymers, how concepts from polymer physics explain the macro behavior of plastics, evolving concepts for plastics use, simple mechanics principles and their role in plastics engineering, models for the behavior of solids and fluids, and the mechanisms underlying the stiffening of plastics by embedded fibers. Drawing from his over fifty years in both academia and industry, Author Vijay Stokes uses the synergy between fundamentals and applications to provide a more meaningful introduction to plastics. Examines every facet of plastics engineering from materials and fabrication methods to advanced composites Provides accurate, up-to-date information for students and engineers both new to plastics and highly experienced with them Offers a practical guide to large number of materials and their applications Addresses current issues for mechanical design, part performance, and part fabrication Introduction to Plastics Engineering is an ideal text for practicing engineers, researchers, and students in mechanical and plastics engineering and related industries.
Handbook of Industrial Polyethylene and Technology
Author: Mark A. Spalding
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119159784
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1382
Book Description
This handbook provides an exhaustive description of polyethylene. The 50+ chapters are written by some of the most experienced and prominent authors in the field, providing a truly unique view of polyethylene. The book starts with a historical discussion on how low density polyethylene was discovered and how it provided unique opportunities in the early days. New catalysts are presented and show how they created an expansion in available products including linear low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, copolymers, and polyethylene produced from metallocene catalysts. With these different catalysts systems a wide range of structures are possible with an equally wide range of physical properties. Numerous types of additives are presented that include additives for the protection of the resin from the environment and processing, fillers, processing aids, anti-fogging agents, pigments, and flame retardants. Common processing methods including extrusion, blown film, cast film, injection molding, and thermoforming are presented along with some of the more specialized processing techniques such as rotational molding, fiber processing, pipe extrusion, reactive extrusion, wire and cable, and foaming processes. The business of polyethylene including markets, world capacity, and future prospects are detailed. This handbook provides the most current and complete technology assessments and business practices for polyethylene resins.
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
ISBN: 1119159784
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 1382
Book Description
This handbook provides an exhaustive description of polyethylene. The 50+ chapters are written by some of the most experienced and prominent authors in the field, providing a truly unique view of polyethylene. The book starts with a historical discussion on how low density polyethylene was discovered and how it provided unique opportunities in the early days. New catalysts are presented and show how they created an expansion in available products including linear low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, copolymers, and polyethylene produced from metallocene catalysts. With these different catalysts systems a wide range of structures are possible with an equally wide range of physical properties. Numerous types of additives are presented that include additives for the protection of the resin from the environment and processing, fillers, processing aids, anti-fogging agents, pigments, and flame retardants. Common processing methods including extrusion, blown film, cast film, injection molding, and thermoforming are presented along with some of the more specialized processing techniques such as rotational molding, fiber processing, pipe extrusion, reactive extrusion, wire and cable, and foaming processes. The business of polyethylene including markets, world capacity, and future prospects are detailed. This handbook provides the most current and complete technology assessments and business practices for polyethylene resins.
Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Based Blends, Composites and Nanocomposites
Author: P.M. Visakh
Publisher: William Andrew
ISBN: 0128012749
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 254
Book Description
Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) is an industrially important material which is not treated specifically in any other book. Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Based Blends, Composites and Nanocomposites fills this gap and systematically guides the reader through all aspects of PET and its blends, composites and nanocomposites. It covers theoretical fundamentals, nanocomposites preparation, modification techniques, structure-property relationships, characterisation of the different blends and composites, and material choice for specific applications. Consisting of contributions from experts in the field this book is a useful reference for the researchers and engineers working on the development and characterization of PET materials as well as on implementing them in real-world products. It can also be used as a standard reference for deeper insight in the mechanical, thermal, thermo-mechanical and visco-elastic aspects in product design decisions. - Provides a systematic overview on all types of poly(ethylene) terephthalate (PET) based blends, composites and nanocomposites - Informs about characterization, structure-property relationships and types of modifications - Links material properties to specific applications, enabling engineers to make the best material choice to increase product performance and cost efficiency, in industries ranging from aerospace to energy
Publisher: William Andrew
ISBN: 0128012749
Category : Technology & Engineering
Languages : en
Pages : 254
Book Description
Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) is an industrially important material which is not treated specifically in any other book. Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) Based Blends, Composites and Nanocomposites fills this gap and systematically guides the reader through all aspects of PET and its blends, composites and nanocomposites. It covers theoretical fundamentals, nanocomposites preparation, modification techniques, structure-property relationships, characterisation of the different blends and composites, and material choice for specific applications. Consisting of contributions from experts in the field this book is a useful reference for the researchers and engineers working on the development and characterization of PET materials as well as on implementing them in real-world products. It can also be used as a standard reference for deeper insight in the mechanical, thermal, thermo-mechanical and visco-elastic aspects in product design decisions. - Provides a systematic overview on all types of poly(ethylene) terephthalate (PET) based blends, composites and nanocomposites - Informs about characterization, structure-property relationships and types of modifications - Links material properties to specific applications, enabling engineers to make the best material choice to increase product performance and cost efficiency, in industries ranging from aerospace to energy
Practical Guide to Polyethylene
Author: Cornelia Vasile
Publisher: iSmithers Rapra Publishing
ISBN: 9781859574935
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 192
Book Description
This practical guide begins with general background to the polyethylene family, with price, production and market share information. It describes the basic types of polyethylene including virgin and filled polyethylene, copolymers, block and graft polymers and composites, and reviews the types of additives used in polyethylene. It gives the low down on the properties, including, amongst others, rheological, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical properties. It goes on to describe the processing issues and conditions for the wide range of techniques used for polyethylene, and also considers post-processing and assembly issues. It offers guidance on product design and development issues, including materials selection. It is an indispensable resource for everyone working with this material.
Publisher: iSmithers Rapra Publishing
ISBN: 9781859574935
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 192
Book Description
This practical guide begins with general background to the polyethylene family, with price, production and market share information. It describes the basic types of polyethylene including virgin and filled polyethylene, copolymers, block and graft polymers and composites, and reviews the types of additives used in polyethylene. It gives the low down on the properties, including, amongst others, rheological, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical properties. It goes on to describe the processing issues and conditions for the wide range of techniques used for polyethylene, and also considers post-processing and assembly issues. It offers guidance on product design and development issues, including materials selection. It is an indispensable resource for everyone working with this material.
Plastics Reinforcement and Industrial Applications
Author: T.R. Crompton
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1482239345
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 250
Book Description
When combined with reinforcing agents, plastics can be used for a number of high-temperature applications. Plastics Reinforcement and Industrial Applications provides a detailed discussion on plastics, polymers, and reinforcing agents (including organic and natural biomaterials). Focused specifically on improving the mechanical, thermal, and electr
Publisher: CRC Press
ISBN: 1482239345
Category : Science
Languages : en
Pages : 250
Book Description
When combined with reinforcing agents, plastics can be used for a number of high-temperature applications. Plastics Reinforcement and Industrial Applications provides a detailed discussion on plastics, polymers, and reinforcing agents (including organic and natural biomaterials). Focused specifically on improving the mechanical, thermal, and electr